Introduction to the Books of the Bible

The Book of Job

Author
Although most of the book consists of the words of Job and his friends, Job himself was not the author. We may be sure that the author was an Israelite, since he (not Job or his friends) frequently uses the Israelite covenant name for God (Yahweh; NIV “the Lord” ). In the prologue (chs. 1-2), divine discourses (38:1- 42:6) and epilogue (42:7-17) “Lord” occurs a total of 25 times, while in the rest of the book (chs. 3-37) it appears only once (12:9).

This unknown author probably had access to a tradition (oral or written) about an ancient righteous man who endured great suffering with remarkable ” perseverance” (Jas 5:11; see note there) and without turning against God (see Eze 14:14,20), a tradition he put to use for his own purposes. While the author preserves much of the archaic and non-Israelite flavor in the language of Job and his friends, he also reveals his own style as a writer of wisdom literature. The book’s profound insights, its literary structures and the quality of its rhetoric display the author’s genius.

Date
Two dates are involved: (1) that of Job himself and (2) that of the composition of the book. The latter could be dated anytime from the reign of Solomon to the time of Israel’s exile in Babylonia. Although the author was an Israelite, he mentions nothing of Israel’s history. He had an account of a non-Israelite sage Job (1:1) who probably lived in the second millennium b.c. (2000-1000). Like the Hebrew patriarchs, Job lived more than 100 years (42:16). Like them, his wealth was measured in livestock and servants (1:3), and like them he acted as priest for his family (1:5). The raiding of Sabean (1:15) and Chaldean (1:17) tribes fits the second millennium, as does the mention of the k e ?s i ?£t a h, “a piece of silver,” in 42:11 (see Ge 33:19; Jos 24:32). The discovery of a Targum (Aramaic paraphrase) on Job dating to the first or second century b.c. (the earliest written Targum yet discovered) makes a very late date for composition highly unlikely.

Language and Text
In many places Job is difficult to translate because of its many unusual words and its style. For that reason, modern translations frequently differ widely. Even the pre-Christian translator(s) of Job into Greek (the Septuagint) seems often to have been perplexed. The Septuagint of Job is about 400 lines shorter than the accepted Hebrew text, and it may be that the translator(s) simply omitted lines he (they) did not understand. The early Syriac (Peshitta), Aramaic (Targum) and Latin (Vulgate) translators had similar difficulties.

Setting and Perspective
While it may be that the author intended his book to be a contribution to an ongoing high-level discussion of major theological issues in an exclusive company of learned men, it seems more likely that he intended his story to be told to godly sufferers who like Job were struggling with the crisis of faith brought on by prolonged bitter suffering. He seems to sit too close to the suffering- to be more the sympathetic and compassionate pastor than the detached theologian or philosopher. He has heard what the learned theologians of his day have been saying about the ways of God and what brings on suffering, and he lets their voices be heard. And he knows that the godly sufferers of his day have also heard the “wisdom” of the learned and have internalized it as the wisdom of the ages. But he also knows what “miserable comfort” (16:2) that so-called wisdom gives- that it ony rubs salt in the wounds and creates a stumbling-block for faith. Against that wisdom he has no rational arguments to marshal. But he has a story to tell that challenges it at its very roots and speaks to the struggling faith of the sufferer. In effect he says to the godly sufferer, “Forget the logical arguments spun out by those who sit together at their ease and discuss the ways of God, and forget those voices in your own heart that are little more than echoes of their pronouncements. Let me tell you a story.”

Theological Theme and Message
When good people (those who “fear God and shun evil,” 1:1) suffer, the human spirit struggles to understand. Throughout recorded history people have asked: How can this be? If God is almighty and “holds the whole world in his hands” and if he is truly good, how can he allow such an outrage? The way this question has often been put leaves open three possibilities: (1) God is not almighty after all; (2) God is not just (is not wholly good but has a demonic streak in him); (3) humans may be innocent. In ancient Israel, however, it was indisputable that God is almighty, that he is perfectly just and that no human is pure in his sight. These three assumptions were also fundamental to the theology of Job and his friends. Simple logic then dictated the conclusion: Every person’s suffering is indicative of the measure of their guilt in the eyes of God. In the abstract, this conclusion appeared inescapable, logically imperative and theologically satisfying.

But what thus appeared to be theologically self-evident and unassailable in the abstract was often in radical tension with actual human experience. There were those whose godliness was genuine, whose moral character was upright and who had kept themselves from great transgression, but who nonetheless were made to suffer bitterly (see, e.g., Ps 73). For these the self-evident theology brought no consolation and offered no guidance. It only gave rise to a great enigma. And the God to whom the sufferer was accustomed to turn in moments of need himself became the overwhelming enigma. This theology left innocent sufferers imprisoned in windowless cells to agonize over their crisis of faith. In the speeches of chs. 3-37, we hear on the one hand the flawless logic but wounding thrusts of those who insisted on the traditional theology, and on the other hand the writhing of soul of the righteous sufferer struggling with the great enigma even while being wounded by his well-intended, theologically orthodox friends (see note on 5:27). Their learned theology had no helpful, encouraging or comforting word for a truly godly sufferer.

The author of the book of Job broke out of the tight, logical mold of the traditional orthodox theology of his day. He saw that it led to a dead end, that it had no way to cope with the suffering of godly people. It could only deny the reality of the experienced anomaly and add to the pain and inner turmoil of the sufferer. Instead of logical arguments, he tells a story. And in his story he shifts the angle of perspective. All around him, among theologians and common people alike, were those who attempted to solve the “God problem” in the face of human suffering (are the ways of God just?) at the expense of humans (they must all deserve what they get). Even those who were suffering were told they must see matters in that light. The author of Job, on the other hand, gave encouragement to godly suffers by showing them that their suffering provided an occasion like no other for exemplifying what true godliness is for human beings.

He begins by introducing a third party into the equation. The relationship between God and humans is not exclusive and closed. Among God’s creatures there is the great adversary (see chs. 1-2). Incapable of contending with God hand to hand, power pitted against power, he is bent on frustrating God’s creation enterprise centered on God’s relationship with the creature that bears his image. As tempter he seeks to alienate humans from God (see Ge 3; Mt 4:1); as accuser (one of the names by which he is called, ?s a ?£t a n, means “accuser” ) he seeks to alienate God from humans (see Zec 3:1; Rev 12:9-10). His all-consuming purpose is to drive an irremovable wedge between God and humans to effect an alienation that cannot be reconciled.

In his story, the author portrays this adversary in his boldest and most radical assault on God and godly people in the special and intimate relationship that is dearest to them both. When God calls up the name of Job before the accuser and testifies to his righteousness- this creature in whom God takes special delight- Satan attempts with one crafty thrust both to assail God’s beloved and to show up God as a fool. True to one of his modes of operation, he accuses Job before God. He charges that Job’s godliness is evil. The very godliness in which God takes such delight lacks all integrity; it is a terrible sin. Job’s godliness is mere self-serving; he is righteous only because it pays. If God will only let Satan tempt Job by breaking the link between righteousness and blessing, he will expose this man and all righteous people as the frauds they are.

It is the adversary’s ultimate challenge. He is sure he has found an opening to accomplish his purpose in the very structure of creation. Humans are totally dependent on God for their very lives and well-being. That fact can occasion one of humankind’s greatest temptations: to love the gifts rather than the Giver, to try to please God merely for the sake of his benefits, to be “religious” and “good” only because it pays. Satan’s accusation of Job is that this is the deep truth concerning his apparently godly and upright conduct- that this is, in fact, the deep truth about the godliness of all righteous people. If he is right, if the godliness of the righteous in whom God delights can be shown to be evil, then a chasm of alienation stands between God and human beings that cannot be bridged. Then even the redemption of human beings is unthinkable, for the godliest among them would be shown to be the most ungodly. God’s whole enterprise in creation and redemption would be shown to be radically flawed, and God can only sweep it all away in awful judgment.

The accusation, once raised, cannot be ignored, and it cannot be silenced- not even by destroying the accuser; it strikes too deeply into the very structure of creation and is rooted too deeply in the human condition within that structure. So God lets the adversary have his way with Job (within specified limits) so that God and righteous Job may be vindicated and the great accuser silenced. From this comes Job’s profound anguish, robbed as he is of every sign of God’s favor so that God becomes for him the great enigma. And his righteousness is also assailed on earth through the logic of the orthodox theology of his friends. Alone he agonizes. But he knows in the depths of his heart that his godliness has been authentic and that someday he will be vindicated (see 13:18; 14:13-17; 16:19; 19:25-27). And in spite of all, though he may curse the day of his birth (ch. 3) and chide God for treating him unjustly (9:28-35)- the uncalculated outcry of a distraught spirit- he will not curse God (as his wife, the human nearest his heart, proposed; see 2:9). In fact, what pains him most is God’s apparent alienation from him.

So the adversary is silenced, and God’s delight in the godly is vindicated. Robbed of every sign of God’s favor, Job refuses to repudiate his Maker. He faces toward God with anguish, puzzlement, anger and bitter complaints, but never turns his back on him to march off- godless- into the dark night. His whole being yearns, not for God’s gifts as such, but for a sign of God’s favor (cf. Ps 42). Godly Job, dependent creature that he is, passes the supreme test occasioned by his creaturely condition and the adversary’s accusation.

This first test of Job’s godliness inescapably involves a second that challenges his godliness at a level no less deep than the first. For the test that sprang from Satan’s accusation to be real, Job has to be kept in the dark about the goings-on in God’s council chamber. But Job belongs to a race of creatures endowed with wisdom, understanding and insight (something of their godlikeness) that cannot rest until it knows and understands all it can about the creation and the ways of God. For that reason, Job’s sudden loss of all that makes life good- every good gift from God- cries out for explanation and puts human wisdom to a supreme test. Job’s friends confidently assume that the logic of their theology can account for all God’s ways. However, Job’s experience makes bitterly clear to him that their “wisdom” cannot fathom the truth of his situation. Yet Job’s wisdom is also at a loss to understand. Still, he demands of God an explanation; he wants to reason matters out with God as his equal. When the dialogue between Job and his three wise friends finally stalemates, and before Job’s last defense (chs. 29-31), the vain attempt of a brash younger voice to explain Job’s plight, and Yahweh’s own breaking-in on the scene, the author introduces a poetic essay on wisdom (ch. 28) that exposes the limits of all human wisdom. The wisdom God has given human beings can indeed understand creaturely things, but from these creaturely things humans cannot learn all of God’s ways. For them the supreme wisdom is to “fear”¦the Lord”¦and to shun evil” (see v. 28)- the very wisdom that had marked Job’s life all the while (see 1:8). Standing as it does at a major juncture between the dialogue and the final major speeches, this authorial commentary on what has been going on in the stalemated dialogue anticipates God’s final word to Job, which silences his arguments and defenses. In the end Job passes the second supreme test of his godliness- of all true godliness- namely, to live by the wisdom God gave him (28:28) even while acknowledging the limits of human wisdom. But that insight and Job’s acceptance of it came only after the long night of suffering and a new hearing of the voice of the Creator speaking from behind the glory curtain of the creation.

In the end the adversary is silenced. Job’s friends are silenced. Job is silenced. But God is not. And when he speaks, it is to the godly Job that he speaks, bringing the silence of regret for hasty words in days of suffering and the silence of repose in the ways of the Almighty (see 38:1- 42:6). Furthermore, as his heavenly friend, God hears Job’s intercessions for his associates (42:8-10), and he restores Job’s blessed state (42:10-17).

In summary, the author’s pastoral word to godly sufferers is that God treasures their righteousness above all else. And Satan knows that if he is to thwart the all-encompassing purpose of God, he must assail the godly righteousness of human beings (see 1:21-22; 2:9-10; 23:8,10; cf. Ge 15:6). At stake in the suffering of the truly godly is the outcome of the titanic struggle between the great adversary and God. At the same time the author gently reminds the godly sufferer that true godly wisdom is to reverently love God more than all his gifts and to trust the wise goodness of God even though his ways are at times past the power of human wisdom to fathom. So here is presented a profound, but painfully practical, drama that wrestles with the wisdom and justice of the Great King’s rule. Righteous sufferers must trust in, acknowledge, serve and submit to the omniscient and omnipotent Sovereign, realizing that some suffering is the result of unseen, spiritual conflicts between the kindgom of God and the kingdom of Satan- between the kingdom of light and the kingdom of darkness (cf. Eph 6:10-18).

Literary Form and Structure
Like some other ancient compositions, the book of Job has a sandwich literary structure: prologue (prose), main body (poetry), and epilogue (prose), revealing a creative composition, not an arbitrary compilation. Some of Job’s words are lament (cf. ch. 3 and many shorter poems in his speeches), but the form of lament is unique to Job and often unlike the regular format of most lament psalms (except Ps 88). Much of the book takes the form of legal disputation. Although the friends come to console him, they end up arguing over the reason for Job’s suffering. The argument breaks down in ch. 27, and Job then proceeds to make his final appeal to God for vindication (chs. 29-31). The wisdom poem in ch. 28 appears to be the words of the author, who sees the failure of the dispute as evidence of a lack of wisdom. So in praise of true wisdom he centers his structural apex between the three cycles of dialogue-dispute (chs. 3-27) and the three monologues: Job’s (chs. 29-31), Elihu’s (chs. 32-37) and God’s (38:1- 42:6). Job’s monologue turns directly to God for a legal decision: that he is innocent of the charges his counselors have leveled against him. Elihu’s monologue- another human perspective on why people suffer- rebukes Job but moves beyond the punishment theme to the value of divine chastening and God’s redemptive purpose in it. God’s monologue gives the divine perspective: Job is not condemned, but neither is a logical or legal answer given to why Job has suffered. That remains a mystery to Job, though the readers are ready for Job’s restoration in the epilogue because they have had the heavenly vantage point of the prologue all along. So the literary structure and the theological significance of the book are beautifully tied together.

Outline

Prologue (chs. 1-2)

Job’s Happiness (1:1-5)

Job’s Testing (1:6- 2:13)

Satan’s first accusation (1:6-12)

Job’s faith despite loss of family and property (1:13-22)

Satan’s second accusation (2:1-6)

Job’s faith during personal suffering (2:7-10)

The coming of the three friends (2:11-13)

Dialogue-Dispute (chs. 3-27)

Job’s Opening Lament (ch. 3)

First Cycle of Speeches (chs. 4-14)

Eliphaz (chs. 4-5)

Job’s reply (chs. 6-7)

Bildad (ch. 8)

Job’s reply (chs. 9-10)

Zophar (ch. 11)

Job’s reply (chs. 12-14)

Second Cycle of Speeches (chs. 15-21)

Eliphaz (ch. 15)

Job’s reply (chs. 16-17)

Bildad (ch. 18)

Job’s reply (ch. 19)

Zophar (ch. 20)

Job’s reply (ch. 21)

Third Cycle of Speeches (chs. 22-26)

Eliphaz (ch. 22)

Job’s reply (chs. 23-24)

Bildad (ch. 25)

Job’s reply (ch. 26)

Job’s Closing Discourse (ch. 27)

Interlude on Wisdom (ch. 28)

Monologues (29:1- 42:6)

Job’s Call for Vindication (chs. 29-31)

His past honor and blessing (ch. 29)

His present dishonor and suffering (ch. 30)

His protestations of innocence and final oath (ch. 31)

Elihu’s Speeches (chs. 32-37)

Introduction (32:1-5)

The speeches themselves (32:6- 37:24)

First speech (32:6- 33:33)

Second speech (ch. 34)

Third speech (ch. 35)

Fourth speech (chs. 36-37)

Divine Discourses (38:1- 42:6)

God’s first discourse (38:1- 40:2)

Job’s response (40:3-5)

God’s second discourse (40:6- 41:34)

Job’s repentance (42:1-6)

Epilogue (42:7-17)

God’s Verdict (42:7-9)

Job’s Restoration (42:10-17)

Introduction to the Books of the Bible

The Book of Ruth

Title
The book is named after one of its main characters, a young woman of Moab, the great-grandmother of David and an ancestress of Jesus (4:21-22; Mt 1:1,5). The only other Biblical book bearing the name of a woman is Esther.

Background
The story is set in the time of the judges, a time characterized in the book of Judges as a period of religious and moral degeneracy, national disunity and frequent foreign oppression. The book of Ruth reflects a time of peace between Israel and Moab (contrast Jdg 3:12-30). Like 1Sa 1-2, it gives a series of intimate glimpses into the private lives of the members of an Israelite family. It also presents a delightful account of the remnant of true faith and piety in the period of the judges, relieving an otherwise wholly dark picture of that era.

Author and Date of Writing
The author is unknown. Jewish tradition points to Samuel, but it is unlikely that he is the author because the mention of David (4:17,22) implies a later date. Further, the literary style of Hebrew used in Ruth suggests that it was written during the period of the monarchy.

Theme and Theology
The importance of faithful love in human relationships among God’s kingdom people is powerfully underscored. The author focuses on Ruth’s unswerving and selfless devotion to desolate Naomi (1:16-17; 2:11-12; 3:10; 4:15) and on Boaz’s kindness to these two widows (chs. 2-4). He presents striking examples of lives that embody in their daily affairs the self-giving love that fulfills God’s law (Lev 19:18; cf. Ro 13:10). Such love also reflects God’s love, in a marvelous joining of human and divine actions (compare 2:12 with 3:9). In God’s benevolence such lives are blessed and are made a blessing.

It may seem surprising that one who reflects God’s love so clearly is a Moabitess (see map, p. 486). Yet her complete loyalty to the Israelite family into which she has been received by marriage and her total devotion to her desolate mother-in-law mark her as a true daughter of Israel and a worthy ancestress of David. She strikingly exemplifies the truth that participation in the coming kingdom of God is decided, not by blood and birth, but by the conformity of one’s life to the will of God through the “obedience that comes from faith” (Ro 1:5). Her place in the ancestry of David signifies that all nations will be represented in the kingdom of David’s greater Son.

As an episode in the ancestry of David, the book of Ruth sheds light on his role in the history of redemption. Redemption is a key concept throughout the account; the Hebrew word in its various forms occurs 23 times. The book is primarily a story of Naomi’s transformation from despair to happiness through the selfless, God-blessed acts of Ruth and Boaz. She moves from emptiness to fullness (1:21; 3:17; see notes on 1:1,3,5-6,12,21-22; 3:17; 4:15), from destitution (1:1-5) to security and hope (4:13-17). Similarly, Israel was transformed from national desperation at the death of Eli (1Sa 4:18) to peace and prosperity in the early days of Solomon (1Ki 4:20-34; 5:4) through the selfless devotion of David, a true descendant of Ruth and Boaz. The author thus reminded Israel that the reign of the house of David, as the means of God’s benevolent rule in Israel, held the prospect of God’s promised peace and rest. But this rest would continue only so long as those who participated in the kingdom- prince and people alike- reflected in their daily lives the selfless love exemplified by Ruth and Boaz. In Jesus, the great “son of David” (Mt 1:1), and his redemptive work, the promised blessings of the kingdom of God find their fulfillment.

Literary Features
The book of Ruth is a Hebrew short story, told with consummate skill. Among historical narratives in Scripture it is unexcelled in its compactness, vividness, warmth, beauty and dramatic effectiveness- an exquisitely wrought jewel of Hebrew narrative art.

Marvelously symmetrical throughout (see Outline), the action moves from a briefly sketched account of distress (1:1-5; 71 words in Hebrew) through four episodes to a concluding account of relief and hope that is drawn with equal brevity (4:13-17; 71 words in Hebrew). The crucial turning point occurs exactly midway (see note on 2:20). The opening line of each of the four episodes signals its main development (1:6, the return; 2:1, the meeting with Boaz; 3:1, finding a home for Ruth; 4:1, the decisive event at the gate), while the closing line of each episode facilitates transition to what follows (see notes on 1:22; 2:23; 3:18; 4:12). Contrast is also used to good effect: pleasant (the meaning of “Naomi” ) and bitter (1:20), full and empty (1:21), and the living and the dead (2:20). Most striking is the contrast between two of the main characters, Ruth and Boaz: The one is a young, alien, destitute widow, while the other is a middle-aged, well-to-do Israelite securely established in his home community. For each there is a corresponding character whose actions highlight, by contrast, his or her selfless acts: Ruth- Orpah, Boaz- the unnamed kinsman.

When movements in space, time and circumstance all correspond in some way, a harmony results that both satisfies the reader’s artistic sense and helps open doors to understanding. The author of Ruth keeps his readers from being distracted from the central story- Naomi’s passage from emptiness to fullness through the selfless acts of Ruth and Boaz (see Theme and Theology). That passage, or restoration, first takes place in connection with her return from Moab to the promised land and to Bethlehem (“house of food” ; see note on 1:1). It then progresses with the harvest season, when the fullness of the land is gathered in. All aspects of the story keep the reader’s attention focused on the central issue. Consideration of these and other literary devices (mentioned throughout the notes) will aid understanding of the book of Ruth.

Outline

Introduction: Naomi Emptied (1:1-5)

Naomi Returns from Moab (1:6-22)

Ruth Clings to Naomi (1:6-18)

Ruth and Naomi Return to Bethlehem (1:19-22)

Ruth and Boaz Meet in the Harvest Fields (ch. 2)

Ruth Begins Work (2:1-7)

Boaz Shows Kindness to Ruth (2:8-16)

Ruth Returns to Naomi (2:17-23)

Naomi Sends Ruth to Boaz’s Threshing Floor (ch. 3)

Naomi Instructs Ruth (3:1-5)

Boaz Pledges to Secure Redemption (3:6-15)

Ruth Returns to Naomi (3:16-18)

Boaz Arranges to Fulfill His Pledge (4:1-12)

Boaz Confronts the Unnamed Kinsman (4:1-8)

Boaz Buys Naomi’s Property and Announces His Marriage to Ruth (4:9-12)

Conclusion: Naomi Filled (4:13-17)

Epilogue: Genealogy of David (4:18-22)

Introduction to the Books of the Bible

The Book of Judges

Title
The title refers to the leaders Israel had from the time of the elders who outlived Joshua until the time of the monarchy. Their principal purpose is best expressed in 2:16: “Then the Lord raised up judges, who saved them out of the hands of . . . raiders.” Since it was God who permitted the oppressions and raised up deliverers, he himself was Israel’s ultimate Judge and Deliverer (11:27; see 8:23, where Gideon, a judge, insists that the Lord is Israel’s true ruler).

Author and Date
Although tradition ascribes the book to Samuel, the author is actually unknown. It is possible that Samuel assembled some of the accounts from the period of the judges and that such prophets as Nathan and Gad, both of whom were associated with David’s court, had a hand in shaping and editing the material (see 1Ch 29:29).

The date of composition is also unknown, but it was undoubtedly during the monarchy. The frequent expression “In those days Israel had no king” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25) suggests a date after the establishment of the monarchy. The observation that the Jebusites still controlled Jerusalem (1:21) has been taken to indicate a time before David’s capture of the city c. 1000 b.c. (see 2Sa 5:6-10). But the new conditions in Israel alluded to in chs. 17-21 suggest a time after the Davidic dynasty had been effectively established (tenth century b.c.).

Themes and Theology
The book of Judges depicts the life of Israel in the promised land from the death of Joshua to the rise of the monarchy. On the one hand, it is an account of frequent apostasy, provoking divine chastening. On the other hand, it tells of urgent appeals to God in times of crisis, moving the Lord to raise up leaders (judges) through whom he throws off foreign oppressors and restores the land to peace.

With Israel’s conquest of the promised land through the leadership of Joshua, many of the covenant promises God had made to their ancestors were fulfilled (see Jos 21:43-45). The Lord’s land, where Israel was to enter into rest, lay under their feet; it remained only for them to occupy it, to displace the Canaanites and to cleanse it of paganism. The time had come for Israel to be the kingdom of God in the form of an established commonwealth on earth.

But in Canaan Israel quickly forgot the acts of God that had given them birth and had established them in the land. Consequently they lost sight of their unique identity as God’s people, chosen and called to be his army and the loyal citizens of his emerging kingdom. They settled down and attached themselves to Canaan’s peoples together with Canaanite morals, gods, and religious beliefs and practices as readily as to Canaan’s agriculture and social life.

Throughout Judges the fundamental issue is the lordship of God in Israel, especially Israel’s acknowledgment of and loyalty to his rule. His kingship over Israel had been uniquely established by the covenant at Sinai (Ex 19-24), which was later renewed by Moses on the plains of Moab (Dt 29) and by Joshua at Shechem (Jos 24). The author accuses Israel of having rejected the kingship of the Lord again and again. They stopped fighting the Lord’s battles, turned to the gods of Canaan to secure the blessings of family, flocks and fields, and abandoned God’s laws for daily living. In the very center of the cycle of the judges (see Outline), Gideon had to remind Israel that the Lord was their King (see note on 8:23). The recurring lament, and indictment, of chs. 17-21 (see Outline) is: “In those days Israel had no king; everyone did as he saw fit” (see note on 17:6). The primary reference here is doubtless to the earthly mediators of the Lord’s rule (i.e., human kings), but the implicit charge is that Israel did not truly acknowledge or obey her heavenly King either.

Only by the Lord’s sovereign use of foreign oppression to chasten his people- thereby implementing the covenant curses (see Lev 26:14-45; Dt 28:15-68)- and by his raising up deliverers when his people cried out to him did he maintain his kingship in Israel and preserve his embryonic kingdom from extinction. Israel’s flawed condition was graphically exposed; they continued to need new saving acts by God in order to enter into the promised rest (see note on Jos 1:13).

Out of the recurring cycles of disobedience, foreign oppression, cries of distress, and deliverance (see 2:11-19; Ne 9:26-31) emerges another important theme- the covenant faithfulness of the Lord. The amazing patience and long-suffering of God are no better demonstrated than during this unsettled period.

Remarkably, this age of Israel’s failure, following directly on the redemptive events that came through Moses and Joshua, is in a special way the OT age of the Spirit. God’s Spirit enabled people to accomplish feats of victory in the Lord’s war against the powers that threatened his kingdom (see 3:10; 6:34; 11:29; 13:25; 14:6,19; 15:14; see also 1Sa 10:6,10; 11:6; 16:13). This same Spirit, poured out on the church following the redemptive work of the second Joshua (Jesus), empowered the people of the Lord to begin the task of preaching the gospel to all nations and of advancing the kingdom of God (see notes on Ac 1:2,8).

Background
Fixing precise dates for the judges is difficult and complex. The dating system followed here is based primarily on 1Ki 6:1, which speaks of an interval of 480 years between the exodus and the fourth year of Solomon’s reign. This would place the exodus c. 1446 b.c. and the period of the judges between c. 1380 and the rise of Saul, c. 1050. Jephthah’s statement that Israel had occupied Heshbon for 300 years (11:26) generally agrees with these dates. And the reference to “Israel” in the Merneptah Stele demonstrates that Israel was established in Canaan before 1210 b.c. (see chart, p. xxiii).
Some maintain, however, that the number 480 in 1Ki 6:1 is somewhat artificial, arrived at by multiplying 12 (perhaps in reference to the 12 judges) by 40 (a conventional number of years for a generation). They point out the frequent use of the round numbers 10, 20, 40 and 80 in the book of Judges itself. A later date for the exodus would of course require a much shorter period of time for the judges (see Introduction to Exodus: Chronology; see also note on 1Ki 6:1).

Literary Features
Even a quick reading of Judges discloses its basic threefold division: (1) a prologue (1:1- 3:6), (2) a main body (3:7- 16:31) and (3) an epilogue (chs. 17-21). Closer study brings to light a more complex structure, with interwoven themes that bind the whole into an intricately designed portrayal of the character of an age.

The prologue (1:1- 3:6) has two parts, and each serves a different purpose. They are not chronologically related, nor does either offer a strict chronological scheme of the time as a whole. The first part (1:1- 2:5) sets the stage historically for the narratives that follow. It describes Israel’s occupation of the promised land- from their initial success to their large-scale failure and divine rebuke.

The second part (2:6- 3:6) indicates a basic perspective on the period from the time of Joshua to the rise of the monarchy, a time characterized by recurring cycles of apostasy, oppression, cries of distress and gracious divine deliverance. The author summarizes and explains the Lord’s dealings with his rebellious people and introduces some of the basic vocabulary and formulas he will use in the later narratives: “did evil in the eyes of the Lord,” 2:11 (see 3:7,12; 4:1; 6:1; 10:6); “handed them over to,” 2:14 (see 6:1; 13:1); and “sold them,” 2:14 (see 3:8; 4:2; 10:7).

The main body of the book (3:7- 16:31), which gives the actual accounts of the recurring cycles (apostasy, oppression, distress, deliverance), has its own unique design. Each cycle has a similar beginning (“the Israelites did evil in the eyes of the Lord” ; see note on 3:7) and a recognizable conclusion (“the land had peace . . . years” or “led Israel . . . years” ; see note on 3:11). The first of these cycles (Othniel; see 3:7-11 and note) provides the “report form” used for each successive story of oppression and deliverance.

The remaining five cycles form the following narrative units, each of which focuses on one of the major judges:

Ehud (3:12-30), a lone hero from the tribe of Benjamin who delivers Israel from oppression from the east.

Deborah (chs. 4-5), a woman from one of the Joseph tribes (Ephraim, west of the Jordan) who judges at a time when Israel is being overrun by a coalition of Canaanites under Sisera.

Gideon and his son Abimelech (chs. 6-9), whose story forms the central account. In many ways Gideon is the ideal judge, evoking memory of Moses, while his son is the very antithesis of a responsible and faithful judge.

Jephthah (10:6- 12:7), a social outcast from the other Joseph tribe (Manasseh, east of the Jordan) who judges at a time when Israel is being threatened by a coalition of powers under the king of Ammon.

Samson (chs. 13-16), a lone hero from the tribe of Dan who delivers Israel from oppression from the west.
The arrangement of these narrative units is significant. The central accounts of Gideon (the Lord’s ideal judge) and Abimelech (the anti-judge) are bracketed by the parallel narratives of the woman Deborah and the social outcast Jephthah- which in turn are framed by the stories of the lone heroes Ehud and Samson. In this way even the structure focuses attention on the crucial issue of the period of the judges: Israel’s attraction to the Baals of Canaan (shown by Abimelech; see note on 9:1-57) versus the Lord’s kingship over his people (encouraged by Gideon; see note on 8:23).

The epilogue (chs. 17-21) characterizes the era in yet another way, depicting religious and moral corruption on the part of individuals, cities and tribes. Like the introduction, it has two divisions that are neither chronologically related nor expressly dated to the careers of specific judges. The events must have taken place, however, rather early in the period of the judges (see notes on 18:30; 20:1,28).

By dating the events of the epilogue only in relationship to the monarchy (see the recurring refrain in 17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25), the author contrasts the age of the judges with the better time that the monarchy inaugurated, undoubtedly having in view the rule of David and his dynasty (see note on 17:1- 21:25). The book mentions two instances of the Lord’s assigning leadership to the tribe of Judah: (1) in driving out the Canaanites (1:1-2), and (2) in disciplining a tribe in Israel (20:18). The author views the ruler from the tribe of Judah as the savior of the nation.

The first division of the epilogue (chs. 17-18) relates the story of Micah’s development of a paganized place of worship and tells of the tribe of Dan abandoning their allotted territory while adopting Micah’s corrupted religion. The second division (chs. 19-21) tells the story of a Levite’s sad experience at Gibeah in Benjamin and records the disciplinary removal of the tribe of Benjamin because it had defended the degenerate town of Gibeah.

The two divisions have several interesting parallels:

Both involve a Levite’s passing between Bethlehem (in Judah) and Ephraim across the Benjamin-Dan corridor.

Both mention 600 warriors- those who led the tribe of Dan and those who survived from the tribe of Benjamin.

Both conclude with the emptying of a tribal area in that corridor (Dan and Benjamin).

Not only are these Benjamin-Dan parallels significant within the epilogue, but they also form a notable link to the main body of the book. The tribe of Benjamin, which in the epilogue undertook to defend gross immorality, setting ties of blood above loyalty to the Lord, was the tribe from which the Lord raised up the deliverer Ehud (3:15). The tribe of Dan, which in the epilogue retreated from its assigned inheritance and adopted pagan religious practices, was the tribe from which the Lord raised up the deliverer Samson (13:2,5). Thus the tribes that in the epilogue depict the religious and moral corruption of Israel are the very tribes from which the deliverers were chosen whose stories frame the central account of the book (Gideon-Abimelech).

The whole design of the book from prologue to epilogue, the unique manner in which each section deals with the age as a whole, and the way the three major divisions are interrelated clearly portray an age gone awry- an age when “Israel had no king” and “everyone did as he saw fit” (see note on 17:6). Of no small significance is the fact that the story is in episodes and cycles. It is given as the story of all Israel, though usually only certain areas are directly involved. The book portrays the centuries after Joshua as a time of Israelite unfaithfulness to the Lord and of their surrender to the allurements of Canaan. Only by the mercies of God was Israel not overwhelmed and absorbed by the pagan nations around them. Meanwhile, however, the history of redemption virtually stood still- awaiting the forward movement that came with the Lord’s servant David and the establishment of his dynasty.

Outline

Prologue: Incomplete Conquest and Apostasy (1:1- 3:6)

First Episode: Israel’s Failure to Purge the Land (1:1- 2:5)

Second Episode: God’s Dealings with Israel’s Rebellion (2:6- 3:6)

Oppression and Deliverance (3:7- 16:31)

Major Judges Minor Judges

A. Othniel Defeats Aram Naharaim (3:7-11)

B. Ehud Defeats Moab (3:12-30) 1. Shamgar (3:31)

C. Deborah Defeats Canaan (chs. 4-5)

D. Gideon Defeats Midian (chs. 6-8)

(Abimelech, the anti-judge, ch. 9)

2 .Tola (10:1-2)

3 .Jair (10:3-5)

E. Jephthah Defeats Ammon (10:6- 12:7)

4 .Ibzan (12:8-10)

5. Elon (12:11-12)

6. Abdon (12:13-15)

F. Samson Checks Philistia (chs. 13-16)

Epilogue: Religious and Moral Disorder (chs. 17-21)

First Episode (chs. 17-18; see 17:6; 18:1)

Micah’s corruption of religion (ch. 17)

The Danites’ departure from their tribal territory (ch. 18)

Second Episode (chs. 19-21; see 19:1; 21:25)

Gibeah’s corruption of morals (ch. 19)

The Benjamites’ near removal from their tribal territory (chs. 20-21)

Introduction to the Books of the Bible

The Book of Joshua

The Conquest and the Ethical Question of War
Many readers of Joshua (and other OT books) are deeply troubled by the role that warfare plays in this account of God’s dealings with his people. Not a few relieve their ethical scruples by ascribing the author’s perspective to a pre-Christian (and sub-Christian) stage of moral development that the Christian, in the light of Christ’s teaching, must repudiate and transcend. Hence the main thread of the narrative line of Joshua is an offense to them.

It must be remembered, however, that the book of Joshua does not address itself to the abstract ethical question of war as a means for gaining human ends. It can only be understood in the context of the history of redemption unfolding in the Pentateuch, with its interplay of divine grace and judgment. Of that story it is the direct continuation.

Joshua is not an epic account of Israel’s heroic generation or the story of Israel’s conquest of Canaan with the aid of her national deity. It is rather the story of how God, to whom the whole world belongs, at one stage in the history of redemption reconquered a portion of the earth from the powers of this world that had claimed it for themselves, defending their claims by force of arms and reliance on their false gods. It tells how God commissioned his people to serve as his army under the leadership of his servant Joshua, to take Canaan in his name out of the hands of the idolatrous and dissolute Canaanites (whose measure of sin was now full; see Ge 15:16 and note). It further tells how he aided them in the enterprise and gave them conditional tenancy in his land in fulfillment of the ancient pledge he had made to Israel’s ancestors, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob.

Joshua is the story of the kingdom of God breaking into the world of nations at a time when national and political entities were viewed as the creation of the gods and living proofs of their power. Thus the Lord’s triumph over the Canaanites testified to the world that the God of Israel is the one true and living God, whose claim on the world is absolute. It was also a warning to the nations that the irresistible advance of the kingdom of God would ultimately disinherit all those who opposed it, giving place in the earth only to those who acknowledge and serve the Lord. At once an act of redemption and judgment, it gave notice of the outcome of history and anticipated the final destiny of humankind and the creation.

The battles for Canaan were therefore the Lord’s war, undertaken at a particular time in the program of redemption. God gave his people under Joshua no commission or license to conquer the world with the sword but a particular, limited mission. The conquered land itself would not become Israel’s national possession by right of conquest, but it belonged to the Lord. So the land had to be cleansed of all remnants of paganism. Its people and their wealth were not for Israel to seize as the booty of war from which to enrich themselves (as Achan tried to do, ch. 7) but were placed under God’s ban (were to be devoted to God to dispense with as he pleased). On that land Israel was to establish a commonwealth faithful to the righteous rule of God and thus be a witness (and a blessing) to the nations. If Israel became unfaithful and conformed to Canaanite culture and practice, it would in turn lose its place in the Lord’s land- as Israel almost did in the days of the judges, and as it eventually did in the exile.

War is a terrible curse that the human race brings on itself as it seeks to possess the earth by its own unrighteous ways. But it pales before the curse that awaits all those who do not heed God’s testimony to himself or his warnings- those who oppose the rule of God and reject his offer of grace. The God of the second Joshua (Jesus) is the God of the first Joshua also. Although now for a time he reaches out to the whole world with the gospel (and commissions his people urgently to carry his offer of peace to all nations), the sword of his judgment waits in the wings- and his second Joshua will wield it (Rev 19:11-16; see notes there).

Title and Theological Theme
Joshua is a story of conquest and fulfillment for the people of God. After many years of slavery in Egypt and 40 years in the desert, the Israelites were finally allowed to enter the land promised to their fathers. Abraham, always a migrant, never possessed the country to which he was sent, but he left to his children the legacy of God’s covenant that made them the eventual heirs of all of Canaan (see Ge 15:13,16,18; 17:8). Joshua was destined to turn that promise into reality.
Where Deuteronomy ends, the book of Joshua begins: The tribes of Israel are still camped on the east side of the Jordan River. The narrative opens with God’s command to move forward and pass through the river on dry land. Then it relates the series of victories in central, southern and northern Canaan that gave the Israelites control of all the hill country and the Negev. It continues with a description of the tribal allotments and ends with Joshua’s final addresses to the people. The theme of the book, therefore, is the establishment of God’s people Israel in the Lord’s land, the land he had promised to give them as their place of “rest” in the earth (1:13,15; 21:44; 22:4; 23:1; see also Dt 3:20 and note; 12:9-10; 25:19; 1Ki 5:4 and note; 8:56). So the Great King’s promise to the partriarchs and Moses to give the land of Canaan to the chosen people of his kingdom is now historically fulfilled (1:1-6; 21:43-45).

In the story the book tells, three primary actors play a part: “the Lord” (as Israel’s God), his servant Joshua, and his people Israel (the last a collective “character” in the story). We meet all three immediately in ch. 1, where all three are clearly presented in the distinctive roles they will play in the story that follows. Ch. 1 also introduces the reader to the main concern of the book as a whole.

The role of the central human actor in the events narrated here is reinforced by the name he bears. Earlier in his life Joshua was called simply Hoshea (Nu 13:8,16), meaning “salvation.” But later Moses changed his name to Joshua, meaning “The Lord saves” (or “The Lord gives victory” ). When this same name (the Greek form of which is Jesus; see NIV text note on Mt 1:21) was given to Mary’s firstborn son, it identified him as the servant of God who would complete what God did for Israel in a preliminary way through the first Joshua, namely, overcome all powers of evil in the world and bring God’s people into their eternal “rest” (see Heb 4:1-11 and notes).

In the Hebrew Bible the book of Joshua initiates a division called the Former Prophets, including also Judges, Samuel and Kings. These are all historical in content but are written from a prophetic standpoint. They do more than merely record the nation’s history from Moses to the fall of Judah in 586 b.c. They prophetically interpret God’s covenant ways with Israel in history- how he fulfills and remains true to his promises (especially through his servants such as Joshua, the judges, Samuel and David) and how he deals with the waywardness of the Israelites. In Joshua it was the Lord who won the victories and “gave Israel all the land he had sworn to give their forefathers” (21:43).

Author and Date
In the judgment of many scholars Joshua was not written until the end of the period of the kings, some 800 years after the actual events. But there are significant reasons to question this conclusion and to place the time of composition much earlier. The earliest Jewish traditions (Talmud) claim that Joshua wrote his own book except for the final section about his funeral, which is attributed to Eleazar son of Aaron (the last verse must have been added by a later editor).

On at least two occasions the text reports writing at Joshua’s command or by Joshua himself. We are told that when the tribes received their territories, Joshua instructed his men “to make a survey of the land and write a description of it” (18:8). Then in the last scene of the book, when Joshua led Israel in a renewal of the covenant with the Lord, it is said that “he drew up decrees and laws” (24:25). On another occasion the narrator speaks as if he had been a participant in the event; he uses the pronouns “we” and “us” (5:1,6).

Moreover, the author seems to be familiar with ancient names of cities, such as “the Jebusite city” (15:8; 18:16,28) for Jerusalem, Kiriath Arba (14:15; 15:54; 20:7; 21:11) for Hebron, and Greater Sidon (11:8; 19:28) for what later became simply Sidon. And Tyre is never mentioned, probably because in Joshua’s day it had not yet developed into a port of major importance.

But if some features suggest an author of Joshua’s own lifetime, others point to a writer of a somewhat later period. The account of the long day when the sun stood still at Aijalon is substantiated by a quotation from another source, the Book of Jashar (10:13). This would hardly be natural for an eyewitness of the miracle who was writing shortly after it happened. Also, there are 12 instances where the phrase “until this day” occurs.

It seems safe to conclude that the book draws on early sources. It may date from the beginning of the monarchy. Some think that Samuel may have had a hand in shaping or compiling the materials of the book, but in fact we are unsure who the final author or editor was.

The Life of Joshua
Joshua’s remarkable life was filled with excitement, variety, success and honor. He was known for his deep trust in God and as “a man in whom is the spirit” (Nu 27:18). As a youth he lived through the bitter realities of slavery in Egypt, but he also witnessed the supernatural plagues and the miracle of Israel’s escape from the army of the Egyptians when the waters of the sea opened before them. In the Sinai peninsula it was Joshua who led the troops of Israel to victory over the Amalekites (Ex 17:8-13). He alone was allowed to accompany Moses up the holy mountain where the tablets of the law were received (Ex 24:13-14). And it was he who stood watch at the temporary tent of meeting Moses set up before the tabernacle was erected (Ex 33:11).

Joshua was elected to represent his own tribe of Ephraim when the 12 spies were sent into Canaan to look over the land. Only Joshua and Caleb, representing the tribe of Judah, were ready to follow God’s will and take immediate possession of the land (see Nu 14:26-34). The rest of the Israelites of that generation were condemned to die in the desert. Even Moses died short of the goal and was told to turn everything over to Joshua. God promised to guide and strengthen Joshua, just as he had Moses (Dt 31:23; cf. Jos 1:5 and note).

Joshua was God’s chosen servant (see 24:29 and note on Dt 34:5) to bring Moses’ work to completion and establish Israel in the promised land. To that special divine appointment he was faithful- as the leader of God’s army, as the administrator of God’s division of the land and as God’s spokesman for promoting Israel’s covenant faithfulness. In all this he was a striking OT type (foreshadowing) of Christ (see notes on Heb 4:1,6-8).

Historical Setting
At the time of the Israelite migration into Canaan the superpowers of the ancient Near East were relatively weak. The Hittites had faded from the scene. Neither Babylon nor Egypt could maintain a standing military presence in Canaan, and the Assyrians would not send in their armies until centuries later.

As the tribes circled east of the Dead Sea, the Edomites refused them passage, so Israel bypassed them to the east. However, when Sihon and Og, two regional Amorite kings of Transjordan, tried to stop the Israelites, they were easily defeated and their lands occupied. Moab was forced to let Israel pass through her territory and camp in her plains. Also the Midianites were dealt a severe blow.

Biblical archaeologists call this period the Late Bronze Age (1550-1200 b.c.). Today thousands of artifacts give testimony to the richness of the Canaanite material culture, which was in many ways superior to that of the Israelites. When the ruins of the ancient kingdom of Ugarit were discovered at modern Ras Shamra on the northern coast of Syria (see chart, p. xxiii), a wealth of new information came to light concerning the domestic, commercial and religious life of the Canaanites. From a language close to Hebrew came stories of ancient kings and gods that revealed their immoral behavior and cruelty. In addition, pagan temples, altars, tombs and ritual vessels have been uncovered, throwing more light on the culture and customs of the peoples surrounding Israel.

Excavations at the ancient sites of Megiddo, Beth Shan and Gezer show how powerfully fortified these cities were and why they were not captured and occupied by Israel in Joshua’s day. Many other fortified towns were taken, however, so that Israel became firmly established in the land as the dominant power. Apart from Jericho and Ai, Joshua is reported to have burned only Hazor (11:13), so attempts to date these events by destruction levels in the mounds of Canaan’s ancient cities are questionable undertakings. It must also be remembered that other groups were involved in campaigns in the region about this time, among whom were Egyptian rulers and the Sea Peoples (including the Philistines). There had also been much intercity warfare among the Canaanites, and afterward the period of the judges was marked by general turbulence.

Much of the data from archaeology appears to support a date for Joshua’s invasion c. 1250 b.c. This fits well with an exodus that would then have taken place 40 years earlier under the famous Rameses II, who ruled from the Nile delta at a city with the same name (Ex 1:11). It also places Joseph in Egypt in a favorable situation. Four hundred years before Rameses II the pharaohs were the Semitic Hyksos, who also ruled from the delta near the land of Goshen.

On the other hand, a good case can be made for the traditional viewpoint that the invasion occurred c. 1406 b.c. The oppression would have taken place under Amunhotep II after the death of his father Thutmose III, who is known to have used slave labor in his building projects. The earlier date also fits better with the two numbers found in Jdg 11:26 and 1Ki 6:1, since it allows for an additional 150 years between Moses and the monarchy. See also Introductions to Genesis: Author and Date of Writing; Exodus: Chronology; Judges: Background; and note on 1Ki 6:1.

Outline

The Entrance into the Land (1:1- 5:12)

The Exhortations to Conquer (ch. 1)

The Reconnaissance of Jericho (ch. 2)

The Crossing of the Jordan (chs. 3-4)

The Consecration at Gilgal (5:1-12)

The Conquest of the Land (5:13- 12:24)

The Initial Battles (5:13- 8:35)

The victory at Jericho (5:13- 6:27)

The failure at Ai because of Achan’s sin (ch. 7)

The victory at Ai (8:1-29)

The covenant renewed at Shechem (8:30-35)

The Campaign in the South (chs. 9-10)

The treaty with the Gibeonites (ch. 9)

The long day of Joshua (10:1-15)

The southern cities conquered (10:16-43)

The Campaign in the North (ch. 11)

The Defeated Kings of Canaan (ch. 12)

The Distribution of the Land (chs. 13-21)

The Areas Yet to Be Conquered (13:1-7)

The Land Assigned by Moses to the Tribes in Transjordan (13:8-33)

The Division of the Land of Canaan (chs. 14-19)

Introduction (14:1-5)

The town given to Caleb (14:6-15)

The lands given to Judah and “Joseph” at Gilgal (chs. 15-17)

The allotments for Benjamin, Simeon, Zebulun, Issachar, Asher, Naphtali and Dan at Shiloh (18:1- 19:48)

The town given to Joshua (19:49-51)

The Cities Assigned to the Levites (chs. 20-21)

The 6 cities of refuge (ch. 20)

The 48 cities of the priests (ch. 21)

Epilogue: Tribal Unity and Loyalty to the Lord (chs. 22-24)

The Altar of Witness by the Jordan (ch. 22)

Joshua’s Farewell Exhortation (ch. 23)

The Renewal of the Covenant at Shechem (24:1-28)

The Death and Burial of Joshua and Eleazar (24:29-33)

Zion
Dormition Church, situated on the modern “Mount Zion”Zion (Hebrew: ?¦, tziyyon; Tiberian vocalization: tsiyyn; transliterated Zion or Sion) is a term that most often designates the land of Israel and its capital Jerusalem. The word is found in texts dating back almost three millennia. It originally referred to a specific mountain near Jerusalem (Mount Zion), on which stood a Jebusite fortress of the same name that was conquered by David and renamed the City of David.

“Zion” came to be applied to the section of Jerusalem where the fortress stood, and later became synonymous with Jerusalem. “Zion” is also a metonym for Solomon’s Temple. Today, “Zion” is often used metaphorically, to symbolize Jerusalem and the Promised Land to come, in which God dwells among his chosen people.

Mount Zion is also the modern name of a hill south of the Old City’s Armenian Quarter – the result of a misnomer dating from the Middle Ages when pilgrims mistook the relatively large, flat summit for the original site of the City of David. The Dormition Church (right) is located upon that hill.

Modern use
For other uses, see Zion (disambiguation).

Zionism
Main article: Zionism Zionism is a national liberation movement[1], a political movement and an ideology that supports a homeland for the Jewish people in the Land of Israel, where the Jewish nation originated over 3,200 years ago and where Jewish kingdoms and self-governing states existed up to the 2nd century CE. While Zionism is based in part upon religious tradition linking the Jewish people to the Land of Israel, the modern movement was originally secular, beginning largely as a response to rampant antisemitism in Europe during the 19th century. After a number of advances and setbacks, and after the Holocaust had destroyed Jewish society in Europe, the Zionist movement culminated in the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948.

Anti-slavery
The Jewish longing for Zion, starting with the deportation and enslavement of Jews during the Babylonian captivity, was adopted as a metaphor by Christianized Black slaves. Thus, Zion symbolizes a longing by wandering peoples for a safe homeland. This could be a literal place such as in Ethiopia for Rastafari for example. For others, it has taken on a more spiritual meaning- a safe spiritual homeland, like in heaven, or a kind of peace of mind in one’s present life. Also the pronunciation of Zion in Ethiopia is Tsion.

Latter-day Saint usage of the term Zion
Main article: Zion (Mormonism) Zion is a term with broad significance in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. In addition to its Biblical meaning referring to Jerusalem, Mormons see Zion more broadly as any city in which the people are unified and are “pure in heart,” with no contention and no poor among them based on living the Law of Consecration. In specific scriptural references, the term refers to the central physical location or city to which Latter-day Saints have historically gathered, which has included Kirtland, Ohio; Independence, Missouri; and Nauvoo, Illinois. In a more metaphorical sense, Zion represents a unified society of Latter-day Saints, unified as members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints or with others willing to live the law of consecration. Under this interpretation one can strive to make even one’s own home “Zion”. Zion also refers to what Latter-day Saints generally believe will be the New Jerusalem, a physical, Millennial city expected to be headquartered in Jackson County, Missouri.

Rastafari Movement
For Rastafarians, Zion is to be found in Africa, and more specifically in Ethiopia, where the term is also in use. Some Rastas believe themselves to represent the Children of Israel in modern times, and their goal is to repatriate to Africa, or to Zion. Rasta reggae music is peppered with references to Zion; among the best-known examples are the Bob Marley songs ‘”Zion Train” and “Iron Lion Zion.” In recent years, such references have also “crossed over” into pop music thanks to artists like Matisyahu, Sublime, Lauryn Hill, Boney M (Rivers of Babylon), Dreadzone with the reggae-tinged track “Zion Youth” and Damian Marley, who released his track “Road to Zion” featuring Nas in 2005.

garitic Texts and the Bible
In texts uncovered at Ugarit, references to “Zephon” (Tsephon) have been identified with the Syrian mountain Jebel Aqra. In these texts, the mountain is the holy place of the gods, where the god known as the “Lord” reigns over the divine assembly. The word “Zephon” is a common Semitic word for “North”, and some have considered it to be possibly cognate with the Hebrew name Zion (Tsiyyon). Psalm 48:2 mentions both terms together: “…Har-Tsiyyon yarktey Tsafon…” (“Mount Zion on the Northern side”), usually taken to refer to the north side of Mount Zion, not necessarily indicating that Zion is found to the North.

The Daughter of Zion
A recruitment poster published in American Jewish magazines. Daughter of Zion (representing the Jewish people): I want your Old New Land! Join the Jewish regiment.The location of the Temple was neither a mountain nor a city, nor even the highest elevation near the city, but rather a smallish hill (Mount Moriah), and this hill is sometimes considered to be what is meant by the phrase “Daughter of Zion” – as though the Temple Mount is the “daughter” of Mount Zion. Another cryptic verse, Zechariah 4:7, seems to refer to this hill, but is also ambiguous, depending on the punctuation. In Hebrew it reads “Mi attah Har-haGadol lifnei Zerubbabel l’mishor…”; the plain text has no punctuation, but the Masoretic text puts a pause following Har-haGadol, to mean “What are you, great mountain? Before Zerubbabel, [you will become just] a plain…” However, if the pause is placed following Zerubbabel, it would mean instead “What are you, “great mountain” before Zerubbabel? [You are just] a plain…” Since this hill is where Zerubbabel built the Second Temple, it appears to be a reference to the “Daughter of Zion” (the hill), as distinct from Zion (the mountain).

Jubilee (Christian)

The concept of the Jubilee is a special year of remission of sins and universal pardon. In the Biblical book of Leviticus, a Jubilee year is mentioned to occur every fifty years, in which slaves and prisoners would be freed, debts would be forgiven and the mercies of God would be particularly manifest. In Christianity, the tradition dates to 1300, when Pope Boniface VIII convoked a holy year. Christian Jubilees, particularly in the Catholic tradition, generally involve pilgrimage to a sacred site, normally the city of Rome. At various times in Church history, they have been celebrated every 50 or 25 years.

Contents
1 “Pre-History” of the Christian Jubilee
2 The first Christian jubilee
3 The Jubilee of 1350
4 The Jubilees of 1390 and 1423
5 Subsequent Jubilees
6 The “Great Jubilee” of 2000
7 Ceremonial of the Jubilee
8 The Jubilee Indulgence
9 List of Known Jubilee Years
10 See also

“Pre-History” of the Christian Jubilee
The year of Jubilee in both the Jewish and Christian traditions is a time of joy, the year of remission or universal pardon. In Mosiac law, each fiftieth year was to be celebrated as a jubilee year, and that at this season every household should recover its absent members, the land return to its former owners, the Hebrew slaves be set free, and debts be remitted (see Jubilee (Biblical)).

The same conception, spiritualized, forms the fundamental idea of the Christian Jubilee, though it is difficult to judge how far any sort of continuity can have existed between the two. It is commonly stated that Pope Boniface VIII instituted the first Christian Jubilee in the year 1300, and it is certain that this is the first celebration of which we have any precise record, but it is also certain that the idea of solemnizing a fiftieth anniversary was familiar to medieval writers, no doubt through their knowledge of the Bible, long before that date. The jubilee of a monk’s religious profession was often kept, and probably some vague memory survived of those Roman ludi saeculares which are commemorated in the “Carmen Saeculare” of Horace, even though this last was commonly associated with a period of a hundred years rather than any lesser interval. But, what is most noteworthy, the number fifty was specially associated in the early thirteenth century with the idea of remission. The translation of the body St. Thomas of Canterbury took place in the year 1220, fifty years after his martyrdom. The sermon on that occasion was preached by Stephen Cardinal Lantron, who told his hearers that this coincidence was meant by Providence to recall “the mystical virtue of the number fifty, which, as every reader of the sacred page is aware, is the number of remission.”

We might be tempted to regard this discourse as a fabrication of later date, were it not for the fact that a Latin hymn directed against the Albigenses, and certainly belonging to the early thirteenth century, speaks in exactly similar terms. The first stanza runs thus:

Anni favor jubilaei
Poenarum laxat debitum,
Post peccatorum vomitum
Et cessandi propositum.
Currant passim omnes rei.
Pro mercede regnum Dei
Levi patet expositum.
(The blessing of the year of jubilee releases the obligation of punishments. After sinners have been purged, the cause against them ends. All the guilty go free by the mercy of God’s kingdom, as set forth in the law of Levi.)
In the light of this explicit mention of a jubilee with great remissions of the penalties of sin to be obtained by full confession and purpose of amendment, it seems difficult to reject the statement of Cardinal Stefaneschi, the contemporary and counsellor of Pope Boniface VIII, and author of a treatise on the first Jubilee, that the proclamation of the Jubilee owed its origin to the statements of certain aged pilgrims who persuaded Boniface that great indulgences had been granted to all pilgrims in Rome about a hundred years before. It is also noteworthy that in the Chronicle of Alberic of Three Fountains, under the year 1208 (not, be it noted 1200), we find this brief entry: “It is said that this year was celebrated as the fiftieth year, or the year of jubilee and remission, in the Roman Court.”

The first Christian jubilee
It is beyond all dispute that on February 22, 1300, Boniface published the Bull “Antiquorum fida relatio”, in which, appealing vaguely the precedent of past ages, he declares that he grants afresh and renews certain “great remissions and indulgences for sins” which are to be obtained “by visiting the city of Rome and the venerable basilica of the Prince of the Apostles”. Coming to more precise detail, he specifies that he concedes “not only full and copious, but the most full, pardon of all their sins”, to those who fulfill certain conditions. These are, first, that being truly penitent they confess their sins, and secondly, that they visit the basilicas of St. Peter and St. Paul in Rome, at least once a day for a specified time–in the case of the inhabitants of the city for thirty days, in the case of strangers for fifteen.

No explicit mention is made of Communion as a requirement to receive the indulgence, nor does the word jubilee occur in the Bull–indeed the pope speaks rather of a celebration which is to occur every hundred years–but writers both Roman and foreign described this year as annus jubileus, and the name jubilee (though others, such as the “holy year” or “the golden year” have been used as well) has been applied to such celebrations ever since. Dante, who is himself supposed by some to have visited Rome during this year to gain the Jubilee indulgence, refers to it under the name Giubbileo in the Inferno and indirectly bears witness to the enormous concourse of pilgrims by comparing the sinners passing along one of the bridges of Malebolge in opposite directions, to the throngs crossing the bridge of the Castel Sant’Angelo on their way to and from St. Peter’s. Similarly, the chronicler Villani was so impressed on this occasion by the sight of the monuments of Rome and the people who flocked thither that he then and there formed the resolution of his great chronicle, in the course of which he gives a remarkable account of what he witnessed.

Villani describes the indulgence connected with this jubilee as a full and entire remission of all sins di culpa e di pena (Italian: of guilt and of punishment), and he dwells upon the great contentment and good order of the people, despite the fact that during the greater part of that year there were two hundred thousand pilgrims on an average present in Rome over and above the ordinary population. With regard to the phrase just noticed, a culpa et a poena (in Latin), which was often popularly used of the Jubilee and other similar indulgences, it should be observed that it means no more than what is now understood by a “plenary indulgence”. It implied, however, that any approved Roman confessor had faculties to absolve from reserved cases (sins whose forgiveness can only be granted by certain priests), and that the liberty thus virtually accorded of selecting a confessor was regarded as a privilege. The phrase was an unscientific one, and was not commonly used by theologians. It certainly did not mean, as some have pretended, that the indulgence of itself released from guilt (which could be punished by Hell) as well as penalty (for sins already forgiven, usually removed in Purgatory). Guilt is actually remitted in the Catholic Church only in virtue of sacramental confession and the sorrow of the penitent. The sovereign pontiff never claimed any power of absolving in grievous matters apart from the sacrament. “All theologians”, remarks Maldonatus, “unanimously without a single exception, reply that an indulgence is not a remission of guilt but of the penalty.”

The Jubilee of 1350
As we have seen, Boniface VIII had intended that the Jubilee should be celebrated only once in a hundred years, but some time before the middle of the fourteenth century, great urgings, in which St. Birgitta of Sweden and the poet Petrarch amongst others had some share, were made to Pope Clement VI, then residing at Avignon, to anticipate this term, particularly on the ground that the average span of human life was so short as otherwise to render it impossible for many to hope to see any Jubilee in their own generation. Clement VI assented, and in 1350 accordingly, a Jubilee was held, though the pope did not return to Rome himself. Gaetani Cardinal Ceccano was dispatched thither to represent His Holiness at the Jubilee. On this occasion daily visits to the Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano were enjoined, besides those to the basilicas of St. Peter and St. Paul outside the Walls, while at the next Jubilee, (in 1390) the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore was added to the list. The visit to these four churches has remained ever since as one of the primary conditions for gaining the Roman Jubilee indulgence.

The Jubilees of 1390 and 1423
The celebration next following was held in 1390, and in virtue of an ordinance of Pope Urban VI, it was proposed to hold a Jubilee every thirty-three years as representing the period of the sojourn of Christ upon earth and also the average span of human life. In 1400, so many people came to Rome, that Pope Boniface IX granted the indulgence again, even though he had not decreed a Jubilee year previously.

Another Jubilee was proclaimed by Pope Martin V in 1423 (33 years after the last proclaimed Jubilee in 1390), but Pope Nicholas V, in 1450, reverted to the quinquagesimal period, while Pope Paul II decreed that the Jubilee should be celebrated every twenty-five years, and this has been the normal rule ever since.

Subsequent Jubilees
The Jubilees of 1450 and 1475 were attended by vast crowds of pilgrims, and that of 1450 was unfortunately made famous by a terrible accident in which nearly two hundred persons were trampled to death in a panic which occurred on the bridge of Sant’ Angelo. But even this disaster had its good effects in the pains taken afterwards to widen the thoroughfares and to provide for the entertainment and comfort of the pilgrims by numerous charitable organizations, of which the Archconfraternity of the Holy Trinity, founded by St. Philip Neri, was the most famous.

Innumerable witnesses have pointed to the great moral renovation produced by these celebrations. The testimony comes in many cases from the most unexceptionable sources, and it extends from the days of Pope Boniface VIII to the striking account given by Cardinal Wiseman of the only Jubilee held in the nineteenth century, that of 1825. The omission of the Jubilees of 1800 and 1850 was due to political disturbances. Pope Pius IX announced a Jubilee for 1875, but it was celebrated without any external solemnity, with only the clergy present for the inauguration. The holy doors were not opened, and the pilgrims who came were generally in Rome to do homage to the Pope, who had not accepted the Italian annexation of Rome, rather than to obtain an indulgence. Nonetheless, with these exceptions the celebration has been uniformly maintained every twenty-five years from 1450 until the twentieth century. The Jubilee of 1900, though shorn of much of its splendour by the confinement of the Holy Father within the limits of the Vatican, was, nevertheless carried out by Pope Leo XIII with all the solemnity that was possible.

In the twentieth century, Jubilees were held in 1925, 1933 (in commemoration of Jesus’ death), 1950, 1975, 1983 (Holy Year of the Redemption) and 2000.

Pope Pius XII used the occasion of the 1950 jubilee to declare a new national anthem for the Vatican City.

The “Great Jubilee” of 2000

The official logo of the Great Jubilee of 2000 features its motto: Christ Yesterday, Today, Forever.Main Article: Great Jubilee

Pope John Paul II announced a Great Jubilee for the year 2000 with his Apostolic Letter Tertio Millennio Adveniente (As the Third Millennium Approaches) of November 10, 1994. In this writing, he called for a three-year preparation period leading up to the opening of the Great Jubilee in December 1999. The first year, 1997, was to be dedicated to meditation on Jesus, the second to the Holy Spirit, and the third to God the Father. This Jubilee was especially marked by a simplification of the rites and the requirements for achieving the indulgence, as well as a huge effort to involve more Christians in the celebration.

Protestant Churches and the Orthodox were invited to celebrate the Jubilee together with the Catholics as a sign of ecumenical dialogue. Furthermore, special Jubilees were invoked for various groups within the Church, such as children, athletes, politicians, and actors. World Youth Day, celebrated in Rome in August, brought over two million young people together.

The Jubilee was closed by the pope on January 6, 2001, by the closing of the holy door of St. Peter’s and the promulgation of the Apostolic Letter Novo Millennio Ineunte (Upon Entering the New Millennium), which outlined the pope’s vision for the future of the Church.

Ceremonial of the Jubilee
The most distinctive feature in the ceremonial of the Jubilee is the unwalling and the final walling up of the “holy door” in each of the four great basilicas which the pilgrims are required to visit. The doors are opened by the Pope at the beginning of the Jubilee and then sealed up again afterwards. Previously, the rite included the use of a silver hammer (for removing the concrete at the opening) and a silver trowel (for sealing it again after the Jubilee), however, in the Great Jubilee of 2000, Pope John Paul II simplified the rite considerably, opening and closing the doors with his hands.

Traditionally, the Pope himself opens and closes the doors of St. Peter’s Basilica personally, and designates a cardinal to open those of St. John Lateran, St. Mary Major, and St. Paul outside the Walls. In the Great Jubilee, the Pope chose to open all the doors personally, while designating cardinals to close all the doors except that of St. Peter’s.

The Jubilee Indulgence
This is a plenary indulgence which, as stated by Pope Boniface VIII in Consistory, it is the intention of the Holy See to grant in the most ample manner possible. Of course, when first conceded, such an indulgence, and also the privilege annexed of choosing a confessor who had power to absolve from reserved cases, was a much rarer spiritual boon than it has since become. So preeminent was the favor then regarded that the custom arose of suspending all other indulgences during the Jubilee year, a practice which, with certain modifications, still exists to the present day. The precise conditions for gaining each Jubilee indulgence are determined by the Roman pontiff, and they are usually announced in a special Bull, distinct from that which it is customary to issue on the preceding feast of the Ascension giving notice of the forthcoming celebration. The main conditions, however, which do not usually vary, are five: confession, Communion, prayer for the Pope, complete renunciation of all attachment to sin, and visits to the four basilicas during a certain specified period. (The first four are common to all plenary indulgences.) The statement made by some, that the Jubilee indulgence, being a culpa et a paena, did not of old presuppose either confession or repentance, is absolutely without foundation, and is contradicted by every official document preserved to us. Besides the ordinary Jubilee indulgence, to be gained only by pilgrims who pay a visit to Rome, or through special concession by certain cloistered religious confined within their monasteries, it has long been customary to extend this indulgence the following year to the faithful throughout the world, though in 2000, the indulgence was extended to the whole world during the Jubilee year itself. For this, fresh conditions are appointed, usually including a certain number of visits to local churches and sometimes fasting or other works of charity. Further, the popes have constantly exercised their prerogative of conceding to all the faithful indulgences ad instar jubilaei (after the model of a Jubilee) which are commonly known as “extraordinary Jubilees”. On these occasions, as at the Jubilee itself, special facilities are usually accorded for absolution from reserved cases, though on the other hand, the great indulgence is only to be gained by the performance of conditions much more onerous than those required for an ordinary plenary indulgence. Such extraordinary Jubilees are commonly granted by a newly elected pontiff at his accession or on occasions of some unexpected celebration, as was done, for example, at the convening of the First Vatican Council, or again at times of great calamity.

Pope John Paul II convoked Jubilees in 1983 (Holy Year of the Redemption) and in 2000 (the Great Jubilee). In 2000, he greatly liberalized the conditions for gaining the Jubilee indulgence. A visit to only one of the four patriarchal basilicas in Rome was necessary (entering through the holy door). To the four baslicas were added the Sanctuary of Divine Love in Rome, and each diocese was permitted to name a location within the diocese where the indulgence could be gained. For instance, the diocese of Rome added the chapel in the airport at Fiumicino as a possible pilgrimage site. Most dioceses simply named the local cathedral as the pilgrimage site. There was no requirement for multiple visits. On the last full day of the Jubilee, pilgrims were permitted to enter the holy door at St. Peter’s until late into the night, so that no one would be denied the opportunity to gain the indulgence. The requirements of confession, Communion, prayer for the Pope and freedom from all attachment to sin remained in place, as for all plenary indulgences.

List of Known Jubilee Years
1300 : Pope Boniface VIII
1350 : Pope Clement VI
1390 : decreed by Pope Urban VI, presided by Pope Boniface IX
1400 : Pope Boniface IX
1423 : Pope Martin V
1450 : Pope Nicholas V
1475 : decreed by Pope Paul II, presided by Pope Sixtus IV
1500 : Pope Alexander VI
1525 : Pope Clement VII
1550 : decreed by Pope Paul III, presided by Julius III
1575 : Pope Gregory XIII
1600 : Pope Clement VIII
1625 : Pope Urban VIII
1650 : Pope Innocent X
1675 : Pope Clement X
1700 : decreed by Pope Innocent XII, presided by Pope Clement XI
1725 : Pope Benedict XIII
1750 : Pope Benedict XIV
1775 : decreed by Pope Clement XIV, presided by Pope Pius VI
1825 : Pope Leo XII
1875 : Pope Pius IX (without great solemnity)
1900 : Pope Leo XIII
1925 : Pope Pius XI
1933 : Pope Pius XI
1950 : Pope Pius XII
1975 : Pope Paul VI
1983 : Pope John Paul II
2000 : Pope John Paul II
Initial text from 1910 Catholic Encyclopedia, with considerable editing

Introduction to the Books of the Bible

The Book of Deuteronomy

Title
The Hebrew name of the book is -elleh haddebarim (“These are the words” ) or, more simply, debarim (“words” ; see 1:1). The word “Deuteronomy” (meaning “repetition of the law” ) arose from a mistranslation in the Septuagint (the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT) and the Latin Vulgate of a phrase in Dt 17:18, which in Hebrew means “copy of this law.” The error is not serious, however, since Deuteronomy is, in a certain sense, a “repetition of the law” (see Structure and Outline).

Author and Date of Writing
The book itself ascribes most of its content to Moses (see 1:1,5; 31:24 and notes). For that reason, the OT elsewhere ascribes the bulk of Deuteronomy and other Pentateuchal legislation to Moses (see, e.g., Jos 1:7-8; 23:6; 1Ki 2:3; 8:53; Mal 4:4 and notes). Similarly Jesus attributed Dt 24:1 to Moses (Mt 19:7-8; Mk 10:3-5), Peter attributed Dt 18:15,18-19 to Moses (Ac 3:22-23), as did Stephen (see Ac 7:37-38 and notes), and Paul attributed Dt 32:21 to Moses (Ro 10:19). See also Mt 22:24 and note; Mk 12:18-19; Lk 20:27-28. At the same time, it seems clear that the narrative framework within which the Mosaic material is placed (e.g., the preamble [1:1-5] and the conclusion [ch. 34]; see also 5:1; 27:1,9,11; 29:1-2; 31:1,7,9-10, 14-25,30; 32:44-46,48-52; 33:1-2) comes from another- and unknown- hand. See Introduction to Genesis: Author and Date of Writing.

Historical Setting
Deuteronomy locates Moses and the Israelites in the territory of Moab in the area where the Jordan flows into the Dead Sea (1:5). As his final act at this important time of transferring leadership to Joshua, Moses delivered his farewell addresses to prepare the people for their entrance into Canaan. In them, Moses emphasized the laws that were especially needed at such a time, and he presented them in a way appropriate to the situation. In contrast to the matter-of-fact narratives of Leviticus and Numbers, here the words of Moses come to us from his heart as this servant of the Lord presses God’s claims on his people Israel.

Special Function in the Bible
The trajectory of the story that unfolds in Genesis-Numbers seems to call for an account of the conquest of Canaan as found in Joshua to bring closure to the movement from promise to fulfillment (see Introduction to Joshua: Title and Theme). But Deuteronomy intervenes as a massive interruption. Here there is very little forward movement. At the end of Numbers, Israel is “on the plains of Moab by the Jordan across from Jericho” (Nu 36:33) and at the end of Deuteronomy, the people are still there (Dt 34:8) waiting to cross the Jordan (see Jos 1:2). All that has happened is the transition from the ministry of Moses as God’s spokesman and official representative to that of Joshua in his place (Dt 34:9; see Jos 1:1-2). But Moses’ final acts as the Lord’s appointed servant for dealing with Israel are so momentous that Deuteronomy’s account of them marks the conclusion to the Pentateuch, while the book of Joshua, which narrates the initial fulfillment of the promises made to the patriarchs and the conclusion to the mission on which Moses had been sent (see Nu 17:15-23; Jos 21:43-45), serves as the introduction to the Former Prophets.

So Deuteronomy creates a long pause in the advancement of the story of redemption:

of deliverance from bondage to a world power (Egypt) to a place in the earth where Israel can be a free people under the rule of God;
of deliverance from rootlessness in the post-Babel world (Abraham, Isaac and Jacob) to security and “rest” (see Dt 3:20 and note; 12:10; 25:19) in the promised land;
of deliverance from a life of banishment from God’s Garden (Ge 3) to a life in the Lord’s own land where he has pitched his tent (Jos 22:19).

But in that long pause on the threshold of the promised land Moses, in this renewal of the Sinaitic covenant, reminded Israel at length of what the Lord required of them as his people if they were to cross the Jordan, take possession of the promised land and there enjoy the promised “rest” in fellowship with him. It was a word that Israel needed to hear over and over again. Upon reading the Pentateuch, Israel was brought ever anew to the threshold of the promised land and its promised “rest” to hear again this final word from God through his servant Moses (see also Ps 95:7b-22). For this reason, all the history of Israel in Canaan as narrated in the Former Prophets is brought under the judgment of this word.

Theological Teaching and Purpose
The book of Deuteronomy was cast in the form of ancient Near Eastern suzerainty-vassal treaties of the second millennium b.c. It contained the Great King’s pledge to be Israel’s Suzerain and Protector if they would be faithful to him as their covenant Lord and obedient to the covenant stipulations as the vassal people of his kingdom. There would be blessings for such obedience, but curses for disobedience (chs. 27-30). Deuteronomy’s purpose was to prepare the new generation of the Lord’s chosen people to be his kingdom representatives in the land he had unconditionally promised them in the Abrahamic covenant (see Structure and Outline below; see also notes on 3:27; 17:14,18).

The love relationship of the Lord to his people, and that of the people to the Lord as their sovereign God, pervade the whole book. Deuteronomy’s spiritual emphasis and its call to total commitment to the Lord in worship and obedience inspired references to its message throughout the rest of Scripture. In particular, the division of the Hebrew Bible called the Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings) is thoroughly imbued with the style, themes and motifs of Deuteronomy. Among the Latter Prophets, Jeremiah also reflects strong influence from this book.

Structure and Outline
Deuteronomy’s literary structure supports its historical setting. By its interpretive, repetitious, reminiscent and somewhat irregular style it shows that it is a series of more or less extemporaneous addresses, sometimes describing events in nonchronological order (see, e.g., 10:3). But it also bears in its structure clear reflections of the suzerain-vassal treaties (see chart, p. 23) of the preceding and then-current Near Eastern states, a structure that lends itself to the Biblical emphasis on the covenant between the Lord and his people. In this sense Deuteronomy is a covenant renewal document, as the following outline shows:

Preamble (1:1-5)

Historical Prologue (1:6- 4:43)

Stipulations of the Covenant (4:44- 26:19)

The Great Commandment: The Demand for Absolute Allegiance (4:44- 11:32)

God’s covenant Lordship (4:44- 5:33)

The principle of consecration (ch. 6)

The program for conquering Canaan (ch. 7)

A call to commitment in the new land (ch. 8)

The lesson of the broken tablets (9:1- 10:11)

Another call to commitment (10:12- 11:32)

Supplementary Requirements (chs. 12-26)

Ceremonial consecration (12:1- 16:17)

Human leaders in God’s righteous kingdom (16:18- 21:21)

Sanctity of God’s kingdom (21:22- 25:19)

Confessions of God as Redeemer-King (ch. 26)

Ratification; Curses and Blessings (chs. 27-30)

Leadership Succession under the Covenant (chs. 31-34)

Change of Leadership (31:1-29)

Song of Moses (31:30- 32:47)

Moses’ Testamental Blessing on the Tribes (32:48- 33:29)

Death of Moses and Succession of Joshua (ch. 34)

Introduction to the Books of the Bible

The Book of Numbers

Title
The English name of the book comes from the Septuagint (the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT) and is based on the census lists found in chs. 1; 26. The Hebrew title of the book (bemidbar, “in the desert” ) is more descriptive of its contents. Numbers presents an account of the 38-year period of Israel’s wandering in the desert following the establishment of the covenant of Sinai (compare 1:1 with Dt 1:1).

Author and Date
The book has traditionally been ascribed to Moses. This conclusion is based on (1) statements concerning Moses’ writing activity (e.g., 33:1-2; Ex 17:14; 24:4; 34:27) and (2) the assumption that the first five books of the Bible, the Pentateuch, are a unit and come from one author. See Introduction to Genesis: Author and Date of Writing.

It is not necessary, however, to claim that Numbers came from Moses’ hand complete and in final form. Portions of the book were probably added by scribes or editors from later periods of Israel’s history. For example, the protestation of the humility of Moses (12:3) would hardly be convincing if it came from his own mouth. But it seems reasonable to assume that Moses wrote the essential content of the book.

Contents
Numbers relates the story of Israel’s journey from Mount Sinai to the plains of Moab on the border of Canaan. Much of its legislation for people and priests is similar to that in Exodus, Leviticus and Deuteronomy. The book tells of the murmuring and rebellion of God’s people and of their subsequent judgment. Those whom God had redeemed from slavery in Egypt and with whom he had made a covenant at Mount Sinai responded not with faith, gratitude and obedience but with unbelief, ingratitude and repeated acts of rebellion, which came to extreme expression in their refusal to undertake the conquest of Canaan (ch. 14). The community of the redeemed forfeited their part in the promised land. They were condemned to live out their lives in the desert; only their children would enjoy the fulfillment of the promise that had originally been theirs (cf. Heb 3:7- 4:11).

Theological Teaching
In telling the story of Israel’s desert wanderings, Numbers offers much that is theologically significant. During the first year after Israel’s deliverance from Egypt, the nation entered into covenant with the Lord at Sinai to be the people of his kingdom, among whom he pitched his royal tent (the tabernacle)- this is the story of Exodus. As the account of Numbers begins, the Lord organizes Israel into a military camp. Leaving Sinai, they march forth as his conquering army, with the Lord at the head, to establish his kingdom in the promised land in the midst of the nations. The book graphically portrays Israel’s identity as the Lord’s redeemed covenant people and its vocation as the servant people of God, charged with establishing his kingdom on earth. God’s purpose in history is implicitly disclosed: to invade the arena of fallen humanity and effect the redemption of his creation- the mission in which his people are also to be totally engaged.

Numbers also presents the chastening wrath of God against his disobedient people. Because of their rebellion (and especially the nation’s refusal to undertake the conquest of Canaan), Israel was in breach of covenant. The fourth book of the Pentateuch presents a sobering reality: The God who had entered into covenant with Abraham (Ge 15; 17), who had delivered his people from bondage in the exodus (Ex 14-15), who had brought Israel into covenant with himself as his “treasured possession” (Ex 19; see especially Ex 19:5) and who had revealed his holiness and the gracious means of approaching him(Lev 1-7) was also a God of wrath. His wrath extended to his errant children as well as to the enemy nations of Egypt and Canaan.

Even Moses, the great prophet and servant of the Lord, was not exempt from God’s wrath when he disobeyed God. Ch. 20, which records his error, begins with the notice of Miriam’s death (20:1) and concludes with the record of Aaron’s death (20:22-29). Here is the passing of the old guard. Those whom God has used to establish the nation are dying before the nation has come into its own.

The questions arise: Is God finished with the nation as a whole (cf. Ro 11:1)? Are his promises a thing of the past? In one of the most remarkable sections of the Bible- the account of Balaam, the pagan diviner (chs. 22-24)- the reply is given. The Lord, working in a providential and direct way, proclaims his continued faithfulness to his purpose for his people despite their unfaithfulness to him.

Balaam is Moab’s answer to Moses, the man of God. He is an internationally known prophet who shares the pagan belief that the God of Israel is like any other deity who might be manipulated by acts of magic or sorcery. But from the early part of the narrative, when Balaam first encounters the one true God in visions, and in the narrative of the journey on the donkey (ch. 22), he begins to learn that dealing with the true God is fundamentally different from anything he has ever known. When he attempts to curse Israel at the instigation of Balak king of Moab, Balaam finds his mouth unable to express the curse he desires to pronounce. Instead, from his lips come blessings on Israel and curses on its enemies (chs. 23-24).

In his seven prophetic oracles, Balaam proclaims God’s great blessing for his people (see 23:20). Though the immediate enjoyment of this blessing will always depend on the faithfulness of his people, the ultimate realization of God’s blessing is sure- because of the character of God (see 23:19). Thus Numbers reaffirms the ongoing purposes of God. Despite his judgment on his rebellious people, God is still determined to bring Israel into the land of promise. His blessing to Israel rests in his sovereign will.

The teaching of the book has lasting significance for Israel and for the church (cf. Ro 15:4; 1Co 10:6,11). God does display his wrath even against his errant people, but his grace is renewed as surely as is the dawn and his redemptive purpose will not be thwarted.

Special Problem
The large numbers of men conscripted into Israel’s army (see, e.g., the figures in 1:46; 26:51) have puzzled many interpreters. The numbers of men mustered for warfare seem to demand a total population in excess of 2,000,000. Such numbers appear to be exceedingly large for the times, for the locale, for the desert wanderings, and in comparison with the inhabitants of Canaan. See note on 3:43.

Various possibilities have been suggested to solve this problem. Some have thought that the numbers may have been corrupted in transmission. The present text, however, does not betray textual difficulties with the numbers.

Others have felt that the Hebrew word for “thousand” might have a different meaning here from its usual numerical connotation. In some passages, for example, the word is a technical term for a company of men that may or may not equal 1,000 (e.g., Jos 22:14, “family division” ; 1Sa 23:23, “clans” ). Further, some have postulated that this Hebrew word means “chief” (as in Ge 36:15). In this way the figure 53,400 (26:47) would mean “53 chiefs plus 400 men.” Such a procedure would yield a greatly reduced total, but it would be at variance with the fact that the Hebrew text adds the “thousands” in the same way it adds the “hundreds” for a large total. Also, this would make the proportion of chiefs to fighting men top-heavy (59 chiefs for 300 men in Simeon).

Another option is to read the Hebrew word for “thousand” with a dual meaning of “chief” and “1,000,” with the chiefs numbering one less than the stated figure. For example, the 46,500 of Reuben (1:20) is read as 45 chiefs and 1,500 fighting men, the 59,300 of Simeon (1:23) is read as 58 chiefs and 1,300 fighting men, etc. But in this case, as in the former, the totals of 1:46 and 2:32 must then be regarded as errors of understanding (perhaps by later scribes).

Still another approach is to regard the numbers as symbolic figures rather than as strictly mathematical. The numerical value of the Hebrew letters in the expression bene yisra’el (“the Israelite community,” 1:2) equals 603 (the number of the thousands of the fighting men, 1:46); the remaining 550 (plus 1 for Moses) might come from the numerical equivalent of the Hebrew letters in the expression “all the men . . . who are able to serve in the army” (1:3). This symbolic use of numbers (called “gematria” ) is not unknown in the Bible (see Rev 13:18), but it is not likely in Numbers, where there are no literary clues pointing in that direction. (For one more option [hyperbole] see note in 1Ch 12:23-27.)

While the problem of the large numbers has not been satisfactorily solved, the Bible does point to a remarkable increase of Jacob’s descendants during the four centuries of their sojourn in Egypt (see Ex 1:7-12). With all their difficulties, these numbers also point to the great role of providence and miracles in God’s dealings with his people during their life in the desert (see note on 1:46).

Structure and Outline
The book has three major divisions, based on Israel’s geographical locations. Each of the three divisions has two parts, as the following breakdown demonstrates: (1) Israel at Sinai, preparing to depart for the land of promise (1:1- 10:10), followed by the journey from Sinai to Kadesh (10:11- 12:16); (2) Israel at Kadesh, delayed as a result of rebellion (13:1- 20:13), followed by the journey from Kadesh to the plains of Moab (20:14- 22:1); (3) Israel on the plains of Moab, anticipating the conquest of the land of promise (22:2- 32:42), followed by appendixes dealing with various matters (chs. 33-36).

Israel at Sinai, Preparing to Depart for the Promised Land (1:1- 10:10)

The Commands for the Census of the People (chs. 1-4)

The numbers of men from each tribe mustered for war (ch. 1)

The placement of the tribes around the tabernacle and their order for march (ch. 2)

The placement of the Levites around the tabernacle, and the numbers of the Levites and the firstborn of Israel (ch. 3)

The numbers of the Levites in their tabernacle service for the Lord (ch. 4)

The Commands for Purity of the People (5:1- 10:10)

The test for purity in the law of jealousy (ch. 5)

The Nazirite vow and the Aaronic benediction (ch. 6)

The offerings of the 12 leaders at the dedication of the tabernacle (ch. 7)

The setting up of the lamps and the separation of the Levites (ch. 8)

The observance of the Passover (9:1-14)

The covering cloud and the silver trumpets (9:15- 10:10)

The Journey from Sinai to Kadesh (10:11- 12:16)

The Beginning of the Journey (10:11-36)

The Beginning of the Sorrows: Fire and Quail (ch. 11)

The Opposition of Miriam and Aaron (ch. 12)

Israel at Kadesh, the Delay Resulting from Rebellion (13:1- 20:13)

The 12 Spies and Their Mixed Report of the Good Land (ch. 13)

The People’s Rebellion against God’s Commission, and Their Defeat (ch. 14)

A Collection of Laws on Offerings, the Sabbath and Tassels on Garments (ch. 15)

The Rebellion of Korah and His Allies (ch. 16)

The Budding of Aaron’s Staff: A Sign for Rebels (ch. 17)

Concerning Priests, Their Duties and Their Support (ch. 18)

The Red Heifer and the Cleansing Water (ch. 19)

The Sin of Moses (20:1-13)

The Journey from Kadesh to the Plains of Moab (20:14- 22:1)

The Resistance of Edom (20:14-21)

The Death of Aaron (20:22-29)

The Destruction of Arad (21:1-3)

The Bronze Snake (21:4-9)

The Song of the Well and the Journey to Moab (21:10-20)

The Defeat of Sihon and Og (21:21-35)

Israel Returns to Moab (22:1)

Israel on the Plains of Moab, in Anticipation of Taking the Promised Land (22:2- 32:42)

Balak of Moab Hires Balaam to Curse Israel (22:2-41)

Balaam Blesses Israel in Seven Oracles (chs. 23-24)

The Baal of Peor and Israel’s Apostasy (ch. 25)

The Second Census (ch. 26)

Instructions for the New Generation (chs. 27-30)

The inheritance for women (27:1-11)

The successor to Moses (27:12-23)

Commands regarding offerings (28:1-15)

Commands regarding festivals (28:16- 29:40)

Commands regarding vows (ch. 30)

The War against Midian (ch. 31)

The Settlement of the Transjordan Tribes (ch. 32)

Appendixes Dealing with Various Matters (chs. 33-36)

The Stages of the Journey (ch. 33)

The Land of Inheritance (chs. 34-35)

The Inheritance for Women (ch. 36)

Introduction to the Books of the Bible

The Book of Leviticus

Title
Leviticus receives its name from the Septuagint (the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT) and means “relating to the Levites.” Its Hebrew title, wayyiqra’, is the first word in the Hebrew text of the book and means “And he [i.e., the Lord] called.” Although Leviticus does not deal only with the special duties of the Levites, it is so named because it concerns mainly the service of worship at the tabernacle, which was conducted by the priests who were the sons of Aaron, assisted by many from the rest of the tribe of Levi. Exodus gave the directions for building the tabernacle, and now Leviticus gives the laws and regulations for worship there, including instructions on ceremonial cleanness, moral laws, holy days, the sabbath year and the Year of Jubilee. These laws were given, at least for the most part, during the year that Israel camped at Mount Sinai, when God directed Moses in organizing Israel’s worship, government and military forces. The book of Numbers continues the history with preparations for moving on from Sinai to Canaan.

Theological Themes
Leviticus is a manual of regulations enabling the holy King to set up his earthly throne among the people of his kingdom. It explains how they are to be his holy people and to worship him in a holy manner. Holiness in this sense means to be separated from sin and set apart exclusively to the Lord for his purpose and for his glory. So the key thought of the book is holiness (see notes on 11:44; Ex 3:5)- the holiness of God and his people (they must revere him in “holiness” ). In Leviticus spiritual holiness is symbolized by physical perfection. Therefore the book demands perfect animals for its many sacrifices (chs. 1-7) and requires priests without deformity (chs. 8-10). A woman’s hemorrhaging after giving birth (ch. 12); sores, burns or baldness (chs. 13-14); a man’s bodily discharge (15:1-18); specific activities during a woman’s monthly period (15:19-33)- all may be signs of blemish (a lack of perfection) and may symbolize human spiritual defects, which break spiritual wholeness. The person with visible skin disease must be banished from the camp, the place of God’s special presence, just as Adam and Eve were banished from the Garden of Eden. Such people can return to the camp (and therefore to God’s presence) when they are pronounced whole again by the examining priests. Before they can reenter the camp, however, they must offer the prescribed, perfect sacrifices (symbolizing the perfect, whole sacrifice of Christ).

After the covenant at Sinai, Israel was the earthly representation of God’s kingdom (the theocracy), and, as its King, the Lord established his administration over all of Israel’s life. Israel’s religious, communal and personal life was so regulated as to establish them as God’s holy people and to instruct them in holiness. Special attention was given to Israel’s religious ritual. The sacrifices were to be offered at an approved sanctuary, which would symbolize both God’s holiness and his compassion. They were to be controlled by the priests, who by care and instruction would preserve them in purity and carefully teach their meaning to the people. Each particular sacrifice was to have meaning for the people of Israel but would also have spiritual and symbolic import.

For more information on the meaning of sacrifice in general see the solemn ritual of the Day of Atonement (ch. 16; see note on 16:1-34). For the meaning of the blood of the offering see 17:11; Ge 9:4 and notes. For the emphasis on substitution see 16:21.

Some suppose that the OT sacrifices were remains of old agricultural offerings- a human desire to offer part of one’s possessions as a love gift to the deity. But the OT sacrifices were specifically prescribed by God and received their meaning from the Lord’s covenant relationship with Israel- whatever their superficial resemblances to pagan sacrifices may have been. They indeed include the idea of a gift, but this is accompanied by such other values as dedication, communion, propitiation (appeasing God’s judicial wrath against sin) and restitution. The various offerings have differing functions, the primary ones being atonement (see note on Ex 25:17) and worship (see chart, p. 151).

Outline
The subjects treated in Leviticus, as in any book of laws and regulations, cover several categories:

The Five Main Offerings (chs. 1-7)

The Burnt Offering (ch. 1)

The Grain Offering (ch. 2)

The Fellowship Offering (ch. 3)

The Sin Offering (4:1- 5:13)

The Guilt Offering (5:14- 6:7)

Additional Regulations for the Offerings (6:8- 7:38)

The Installation and Ministry of Aaron and His Sons (chs. 8-10)

The Ordination of Aaron and His Sons (ch. 8)

The Ministry of the Priests (ch. 9)

The Death of Nadab and Abihu and Attendant Regulations (ch. 10)

The Distinction Between Clean and Unclean (chs. 11-15)

Clean and Unclean Food (ch. 11)

Purification After Childbirth (ch. 12)

Regulations for Skin Diseases (13:1-46)

Regulations for Mildew (13:47-59)

Cleansing from Skin Diseases (14:1-32)

Cleansing from Mildew (14:33-57)

Discharges That Cause Uncleanness (ch. 15)

The Annual Day of Atonement (ch. 16)

Holy Living (chs. 17-26)

Eating Blood Prohibited (ch. 17)

Unlawful Sexual Relations (ch. 18)

Various Laws for Holy Living (ch. 19)

Punishments for Sin (ch. 20)

Regulations for Priests (21:1- 22:16)

Acceptable and Unacceptable Sacrifices (22:17-33)

The Annual Feasts (ch. 23)

Rules for Oil and Bread in the Tabernacle (24:1-9)

Punishment for Blasphemy (24:10-23)

The Sabbath and Jubilee Years (ch. 25)

Covenant Blessings and Curses (ch. 26)

Regulations for Offerings Vowed to the Lord (ch. 27)

Introduction to the Books of the Bible

The Book of Exodus

Title
“Exodus” is a Latin word derived from Greek Exodos, the name given to the book by those who translated it into Greek. The word means “exit,” “departure” (see Lk 9:31; Heb 11:22). The name was retained by the Latin Vulgate, by the Jewish author Philo (a contemporary of Christ) and by the Syriac version. In Hebrew the book is named after its first two words, we’elleh shemoth (“These are the names of” ). The same phrase occurs in Ge 46:8, where it likewise introduces a list of the names of those Israelites “who went to Egypt with Jacob” (1:1). Thus Exodus was not intended to exist separately, but was thought of as a continuation of a narrative that began in Genesis and was completed in Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. The first five books of the Bible are together known as the Pentateuch (see Introduction to Genesis: Author and Date of Writing).

Author and Date of Writing
Several statements in Exodus indicate that Moses wrote certain sections of the book (see 17:14; 24:4; 34:27). In addition, Jos 8:31 refers to the command of Ex 20:25 as having been “written in the Book of the Law of Moses.” The NT also claims Mosaic authorship for various passages in Exodus (see, e.g., Mk 7:10; 12:26 and NIV text notes; see also Lk 2:22-23). Taken together, these references strongly suggest that Moses was largely responsible for writing the book of Exodus- a traditional view not convincingly challenged by the commonly held notion that the Pentateuch as a whole contains four underlying sources (see Introduction to Genesis: Author and Date of Writing).

Chronology
According to 1Ki 6:1 (see note there), the exodus took place 480 years before “the fourth year of Solomon’s reign over Israel.” Since that year was c. 966 b.c., it has been traditionally held that the exodus occurred c. 1446. The “three hundred years” of Jdg 11:26 fits comfortably within this time span (see Introduction to Judges: Background). In addition, although Egyptian chronology relating to the 18th dynasty remains somewhat uncertain, some recent research tends to support the traditional view that two of this dynasty’s pharaohs, Thutmose III and his son Amunhotep II, were the pharaohs of the oppression and the exodus respectively (see notes on 2:15,23; 3:10).

On the other hand, the appearance of the name Rameses in 1:11 has led many to the conclusion that the 19th-dynasty pharaoh Seti I and his son Rameses II were the pharaohs of the oppression and the exodus respectively. Furthermore, archaeological evidence of the destruction of numerous Canaanite cities in the 13th century b.c. has been interpreted as proof that Joshua’s troops invaded the promised land in that century. These and similar lines of argument lead to a date for the exodus of c. 1290 (see Introduction to Joshua: Historical Setting).

The identity of the cities’ attackers, however, cannot be positively ascertained. The raids may have been initiated by later Israelite armies, or by Philistines or other outsiders. In addition, the archaeological evidence itself has become increasingly ambiguous, and recent evaluations have tended to redate some of it to the 18th dynasty. Also, the name Rameses in 1:11 could very well be the result of an editorial updating by someone who lived centuries after Moses- a procedure that probably accounts for the appearance of the same word in Ge 47:11 (see note there).

In short, there are no compelling reasons to modify in any substantial way the traditional 1446 b.c. date for the exodus of the Israelites from Egyptian bondage.

The Route of the Exodus
At least three routes of escape from Pithom and Rameses (1:11) have been proposed: (1) a northern route through the land of the Philistines (but see 13:17); (2) a middle route leading eastward across Sinai to Beersheba; and (3) a southern route along the west coast of Sinai to the southeastern extremities of the peninsula. The southern route seems most likely, since several of the sites in Israel’s desert itinerary have been tentatively identified along it. See map No. 2 at the end of the Study Bible. The exact place where Israel crossed the “Red Sea” is uncertain, however (see notes on 13:18; 14:2).

Themes and Theology
Exodus lays a foundational theology in which God reveals his name, his attributes, his redemption, his law and how he is to be worshiped. It also reports the appointment and work of Moses as the mediator of the Sinaitic covenant, describes the beginnings of the priesthood in Israel, defines the role of the prophet and relates how the ancient covenant relationship between God and his people (see note on Ge 17:2) came under a new administration (the covenant given at Mount Sinai).

Profound insights into the nature of God are found in chs. 3; 6; 33-34. The focus of these texts is on the fact and importance of his presence with his people (as signified by his name Yahweh- see notes on 3:14-15- and by his glory among them). But emphasis is also placed on his attributes of justice, truthfulness, mercy, faithfulness and holiness. Thus to know God’s “name” is to know him and to know his character (see 3:13-15; 6:3).

God is also the Lord of history. Neither the affliction of Israel nor the plagues in Egypt were outside his control. The pharaoh, the Egyptians and all Israel saw the power of God. There was no one like him, “majestic in holiness, awesome in glory, working wonders” (15:11; see note there).

It is reassuring to know that God remembers and is concerned about his people (see 2:24). What he had promised centuries earlier to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob he now begins to bring to fruition as Israel is freed from Egyptian bondage and sets out for the land of promise. The covenant at Sinai is but another step in God’s fulfillment of his promise to the patriarchs (3:15-17; 6:2-8; 19:3-8).

The Biblical message of salvation is likewise powerfully set forth in this book. The verb “redeem” is used, e.g., in 6:6; 15:13. But the heart of redemption theology is best seen in the Passover narrative of ch. 12, the sealing of the covenant in ch. 24, and the account of God’s gracious renewal of that covenant after Israel’s blatant unfaithfulness to it in their worship of the golden calf (see 34:1-14 and notes). The apostle Paul viewed the death of the Passover lamb as fulfilled in Christ (1Co 5:7). Indeed, John the Baptist called Jesus the “Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world” (Jn 1:29).

The foundation of Biblical ethics and morality is laid out first in the gracious character of God as revealed in the exodus itself and then in the Ten Commandments (20:1-17) and the ordinances of the Book of the Covenant (20:22- 23:33), which taught Israel how to apply in a practical way the principles of the commandments.

The book concludes with an elaborate discussion of the theology of worship. Though costly in time, effort and monetary value, the tabernacle, in meaning and function, points to the “chief end of man,” namely, “to glorify God and to enjoy him forever” (Westminster Shorter Catechism). By means of the tabernacle, the omnipotent, unchanging and transcendent God of the universe came to “dwell” or “tabernacle” with his people, thereby revealing his gracious nearness as well. God is not only mighty in Israel’s behalf; he is also present in the nation’s midst.

However, these theological elements do not merely sit side by side in the Exodus narrative. They receive their fullest and richest significance from the fact that they are embedded in the account of God’s raising up his servant Moses (1) to liberate his people from Egyptian bondage, (2) to inaugurate his earthly kingdom among them by bringing them into a special national covenant with him, and (3) to erect within Israel God’s royal tent. And this account of redemption from bondage leading to consecration in covenant and the pitching of God’s royal tent in the earth, all through the ministry of a chosen mediator, discloses God’s purpose in history- the purpose he would fulfill through Israel, and ultimately through Jesus Christ the supreme Mediator.

Outline

Prologue (chs. 1-2)

Israel Blessed and Oppressed (ch. 1)

A Deliverer Prepared (ch. 2)

Infant Moses spared (2:1-10)

Mature Moses’ escape from Egypt (2:11-25)

God’s Deliverance of Israel (chs. 3-18)

The Deliverer Called (ch. 3)

The Deliverer’s Objections and Disqualifications Overcome (ch. 4)

Unsuccessful Attempts to Deliver (5:1- 6:12)

Oppression made more harsh (5:1-21)

Promise of deliverance renewed (5:22- 6:12)

The Deliverers Identified (6:13-27)

Judgment of Plagues on Egypt (6:28- 11:10)

Deliverer’s commission renewed (6:28- 7:7)

Presenting the signs of divine authority (7:8-13)

First plague: water turned to blood (7:14-24)

Second plague: frogs (7:25- 8:15)

Third plague: gnats (8:16-19)

Fourth plague: flies (8:20-32)

Fifth plague: against livestock (9:1-7)

Sixth plague: boils (9:8-12)

Seventh plague: hail (9:13-35)

Eighth plague: locusts (10:1-20)

Ninth plague: darkness (10:21-29)

Tenth plague announced: death of the firstborn (ch. 11)

The Passover (12:1-28)

The Exodus from Egypt (12:29-51)

The Consecration of the Firstborn (13:1-16)

Crossing the “Red Sea” (13:17- 15:21)

Deliverance at the “Red Sea” (13:17- 14:31)

Song at the sea (15:1-21)

Journey to Sinai (15:22- 18:27)

The waters of Marah (15:22-27)

The manna and the quail (ch. 16)

The waters of Meribah (17:1-7)

The war with Amalek (17:8-16)

Basic administrative structure (ch. 18)

Covenant at Sinai (chs. 19-24)

The Covenant Proposed (ch. 19)

The Decalogue (20:1-17)

The Reaction of the People to God’s Fiery Presence (20:18-21)

The Book of the Covenant (20:22- 23:33)

Prologue (20:22-26)

Laws on slaves (21:1-11)

Laws on homicide (21:12-17)

Laws on bodily injuries (21:18-32)

Laws on property damage (21:33- 22:15)

Laws on society (22:16-31)

Laws on justice and neighborliness (23:1-9)

Laws on sacred seasons (23:10-19)

Epilogue (23:20-33)

Ratification of the Covenant (ch. 24)

God’s Royal Tent in Israel (chs. 25-40)

Instructions concerning the Royal Tent (chs. 25-31)

Collection of the materials (25:1-9)

Furnishings of the tent (25:10-40)

Ark and atonement cover (25:10-22)

Table of the bread of the Presence (25:23-30)

Gold lampstand (25:31-40)

The tent and its courtyard (26:1- 27:19)

Curtains and frames (ch. 26)

Altar of burnt offering (27:1-8)

Courtyard (27:9-19)

The tent’s personnel (27:20- 29:46)

Priesthood (27:20- 28:5)

Garments of the priests (28:6-43)

Ordination of the priests (ch. 29)

Remaining provisions concerning the tent (ch. 30)

Altar of incense (30:1-10)

Census tax (30:11-16)

Bronze basin (30:17-21)

Anointing oil and incense (30:22-38)

Appointment of craftsmen (31:1-11)

Observance of Sabbath rest (31:12-18)

Rebellion Threatens Withdrawal of God (chs. 32-34)

The golden calf (32:1-29)

Moses’ mediation (32:30-35)

Threatened separation and Moses’ prayer (ch. 33)

Renewal of the covenant (ch. 34)

God’s Royal Tent Set Up (chs. 35-40)

Summons to build (35:1-19)

Voluntary gifts (35:20-29)

Bezalel and his craftsmen (35:30- 36:7)

Progress of the work (36:8- 39:31)

Moses’ blessing (39:32-43)

Erection of God’s royal tent (40:1-33)

Dedication of God’s royal tent (40:34-38)

Introduction to the Book of Hebrews

The Book of Hebrews

Author
The writer of this letter does not identify himself, but he was obviously well known to the original recipients. Though for some 1,200 years (from c. a.d. 400 to 1600) the book was commonly called “The Epistle of Paul to the Hebrews,” there was no agreement in the earliest centuries regarding its authorship. Since the Reformation it has been widely recognized that Paul could not have been the writer. There is no disharmony between the teaching of Hebrews and that of Paul’s letters, but the specific emphases and writing styles are markedly different. Contrary to Paul’s usual practice, the author of Hebrews nowhere identifies himself in the letter- except to indicate that he was a man (see note on 11:32). Moreover, the statement “This salvation, which was first announced by the Lord, was confirmed to us by those who heard him” (2:3), indicates that the author had neither been with Jesus during his earthly ministry nor received special revelation directly from the risen Lord, as had Paul (Gal 1:11-12).

The earliest suggestion of authorship is found in Tertullian’s De Pudicitia, 20 (c. 200), in which he quotes from “an epistle to the Hebrews under the name of Barnabas.” From the letter itself it is clear that the writer must have had authority in the apostolic church and was an intellectual Hebrew Christian well versed in the OT. Barnabas meets these requirements. He was a Jew of the priestly tribe of Levi (Ac 4:36) who became a close friend of Paul after the latter’s conversion. Under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, the church at Antioch commissioned Barnabas and Paul for the work of evangelism and sent them off on the first missionary journey (Ac 13:1-4).

The other leading candidate for authorship is Apollos, whose name was first suggested by Martin Luther and who is favored by many interpreters today. Apollos, an Alexandrian by birth, was also a Jewish Christian with notable intellectual and oratorical abilities. Luke tells us that “he was a learned man, with a thorough knowledge of the Scriptures” (Ac 18:24). We also know that Apollos was associated with Paul in the early years of the church in Corinth (1Co 1:12; 3:4-6,22).

One thing is evident: The author was a master of the Greek language of his day, and he was thoroughly acquainted with the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT (the Septuagint), which he regularly quotes.

Date
Hebrews must have been written before the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple in a.d. 70 because: (1) If it had been written after this date, the author surely would have mentioned the temple’s destruction and the end of the Jewish sacrificial system; and (2) the author consistently uses the Greek present tense when speaking of the temple and the priestly activities connected with it (see 5:1-3; 7:23,27; 8:3-5; 9:6-9,13,25; 10:1,3-4,8,11; 13:10-11).

Recipients
The letter was addressed primarily to Jewish converts who were familiar with the OT and who were being tempted to revert to Judaism or to Judaize the gospel (cf. Gal 2:14). Some have suggested that these professing Jewish Christians were thinking of merging with a Jewish sect, such as the one at Qumran near the Dead Sea. It has also been suggested that the recipients were from the “large number of priests who became obedient to the faith” (Ac 6:7).

Theme
The theme of Hebrews is the absolute supremacy and sufficiency of Jesus Christ as revealer and as mediator of God’s grace. The prologue (1:1-4) presents Christ as God’s full and final revelation, far surpassing the revelation given in the OT. The prophecies and promises of the OT are fulfilled in the “new covenant” (or “new testament” ), of which Christ is the mediator. From the OT itself, Christ is shown to be superior to the ancient prophets, to angels, to Moses (the mediator of the former covenant) and to Aaron and the priestly succession descended from him. Hebrews could be called “the book of better things” since the two Greek words for “better” and “superior” occur 15 times in the letter. A striking feature of this presentation of the gospel is the unique manner in which the author employs expositions of eight specific passages of the OT Scriptures:

2:5-9: Exposition of Ps 8:4-6

3:7- 4:13: Exposition of Ps 95:7-11

4:14- 7:28: Exposition of Ps 110:4

8:1- 10:18: Exposition of Jer 31:31-34

10:1-10: Exposition of Ps 40:6-8

10:32- 12:3: Exposition of Hab 2:3-4

12:4-13: Exposition of Pr 3:11-12

12:18-24: Exposition of Ex 19:10-23

Practical applications of this theme are given throughout the book. The readers are told that there can be no turning back to or continuation in the old Jewish system, which has been superseded by the unique priesthood of Christ. God’s people must now look only to him, whose atoning death, resurrection and ascension have opened the way into the true, heavenly sanctuary of God’s presence. To “ignore such a great salvation” (2:3) or to give up the pursuit of holiness (12:10,14) is to face the anger of the “living God” (10:31). Five times the author weaves into his presentation of the gospel stern warnings (see note on 2:1-4) and reminds his readers of the divine judgment that came on the rebellious generation of Israelites in the desert.

Literary Form
Hebrews is commonly referred to as a letter, though it does not have the typical form of a letter. It ends like a letter (13:22-25) but begins more like an essay or sermon (1:1-4). The author does not identify himself or those addressed, which letter writers normally did. And he offers no manner of greeting, such as is usually found at the beginning of ancient letters. Rather, he begins with a magnificent statement about Jesus Christ. He calls his work a “word of exhortation” (13:22), the conventional designation given a sermon in a synagogue service (see Ac 13:15, where “message of encouragement” translates the same Greek words as “word of exhortation” ). Like a sermon, Hebrews is full of encouragement, exhortations and stern warnings. It is likely that the author used sermonic materials and sent them out in a modified letter form.

Outline

Prologue: The Superiority of God’s New Revelation (1:1-4)

The Superiority of Christ to Leading Figures under the Old Covenant (1:5- 7:28)

Christ Is Superior to the Angels (1:5- 2:18)

Scriptural proof of his superiority (1:5-14)

Exhortation not to ignore the revelation of God in his Son (2:1-4)

Jesus was made a little lower than the angels (2:5-9)

Having been made like us, Jesus was enabled to save us (2:10-18)

Christ Is Superior to Moses (3:1- 4:13)

Demonstration of Christ’s superiority (3:1-6)

Exhortation to enter salvation-rest (3:7- 4:13)

Christ Is Superior to the Aaronic Priests (4:14- 7:28)

Jesus is the great high priest (4:14-16)

Qualifications of a priest (5:1-10)

Exhortation to press on toward maturity (5:11- 6:12)

The certainty of God’s promise (6:13-20)

Christ’s superior priestly order (ch. 7)

The Superior Sacrificial Work of Our High Priest (8:1- 10:18)

A New Sanctuary and a New Covenant (ch. 8)

The Old Sanctuary (9:1-10)

The Better Sacrifice (9:11- 10:18)

A Call to Follow Jesus Faithfully and with Perseverance (10:19- 12:29)

Having Confidence to Enter the Sanctuary (10:19-25)

A Warning against Persistence in Sin (10:26-31)

C. Persevering in Faith under Pressure (10:32- 12:3)

As in the past, so in the future (10:32-39)

Faith and its many outstanding examples (ch. 11)

Jesus, the supreme example (12:1-3)

Encouragement to Persevere in the Face of Hardship (12:4-13)

Exhortation to Holy Living (12:14-17)

Crowning Motivation and Warning (12:18-29)

Conclusion (ch. 13)

Rules for Christian Living (13:1-17)

Request for Prayer (13:18-19)

Benediction (13:20-21)

Personal Remarks (13:22-23)

Greetings and Final Benediction (13:24-25)

Introduction to the Books of the Bible

The Book of 2 Corinthians

Author
Paul is the author of this letter (see 1:1; 10:1). It is stamped with his style and contains more autobiographical material than any of his other writings.

Date
The available evidence indicates that the year a.d. 55 is a reasonable estimate for the writing of this letter. From 1Co 16:5-8 it may be concluded that 1 Corinthians was written from Ephesus before Pentecost (in the late spring) and that 2 Corinthians may have been written later that same year before the onset of winter. 2Co 2:13; 7:5 indicate that it was probably written from Macedonia (see chart, p. 2261).

Recipients
The opening greeting of the letter states that it was addressed to the church in Corinth and to Christians throughout Achaia (the Roman province comprising all of Greece south of Macedonia; see map, 2288).

Occasion
It seems that Paul wrote as many as four letters to the church at Corinth: (1) the letter referred to in 1Co 5:9 (see note there); (2) 1 Corinthians; (3) the ?severe? letter (see 2Co 2:3-4; see also below); (4) 2 Corinthians. After writing 1 Corinthians Paul continued his ministry at Ephesus until he heard that his letter had not completely accomplished its purpose. A group of men had come to Corinth who presented themselves as apostles. They were false teachers who were challenging, among other things, Paul?s personal integrity and his authority as an apostle (see 11:4; 12:11).

In the face of this serious situation, Paul decided to make a quick trip to Corinth (12:4; 13:1-2) to see whether he could remedy the situation. The visit turned out to be painful and did not accomplish its purpose. So when Paul returned to Ephesus, he wrote the Corinthians a severe letter ?out of great distress and anguish of heart and with many tears? (2:4), probably sending it by Titus (12:8). Some identify this letter with 2Co 10-13. Others think it has been lost.

After writing the severe letter, Paul had second thoughts. He was deeply concerned about how the Corinthians might react to it. So after the riot caused by Demetrius and his fellow silversmiths (see Ac 19:23-41), he left Ephesus and set out for Macedonia by way of Troas. He expected to meet Titus in Troas to get news of the effect of his severe letter on the Corinthian church, but Titus was not there (see 2Co 2:12-13). Still deeply concerned and despite the fact that the Lord had opened up an opportunity to preach the gospel at Troas, Paul said good-by to the believers there and moved on to Macedonia, where he met Titus. To his relief, the news from the Corinthian church was basically good. The severe letter had brought its intended results (7:5-16). The encouraging report of Titus of the improved situation at Corinth is the immediate occasion of the writing of 2 Corinthians.

How, then, does one explain the harsh tone of chs. 10-13, which is so different from the rest of the letter? Some think that when Paul had just completed writing the first nine chapters, a report came to him that a strong and vocal minority was still causing trouble at Corinth. So before sending off the letter he added the last four chapters to address this troublemaking group. Others hold that chs. 10-13 were written some time after Paul had sent the first nine chapters and that they constitute a separate letter. There is, however, no manuscript evidence that warrants splitting 2 Corinthians into two parts.

Purposes
Because of the occasion that prompted this letter, Paul had a number of purposes in mind:

To express the comfort and joy Paul felt because the Corinthians had responded favorably to his painful letter (1:3-4; 7:8-9,12-13).

To let them know about the trouble he went through in the province of Asia (1:8-11).

To explain why he had changed his travel plans (1:12-2:4).

To ask them to forgive the offending party (2:5-11).

To warn them not to be ?yoked together with unbelievers? (6:14-7:1).

To explain to them the true nature (its joys, sufferings and rewards) and high calling of Christian ministry. This is the so-
called great digression, but it turns out to be in some ways the most important section of the letter (2:14-7:4; see note on 2:14).

To teach the Corinthians about the grace of giving and to make sure that they complete the collection for the poor Christians at Jerusalem (chs. 8-9).

To deal with the minority opposition in the church (chs. 10-13).

To prepare the Corinthians for his upcoming visit (12:14; 13:1-3,10).

Structure
The structure of the letter relates primarily to Paul?s impending third visit to Corinth. The letter falls naturally into three sections:

Paul explains the reason for the changes in his itinerary (chs. 1-7).
Paul encourages the Corinthians to complete their collection in preparation for his arrival (chs. 8-9).
Paul stresses the certainty of his coming, his authenticity as an apostle and his readiness to exercise discipline if necessary (chs. 10-13).

Unity
Some have questioned the unity of this letter (see above), but it forms a coherent whole, as the structure above shows. Tradition has been unanimous in affirming its unity (the early church fathers, e.g., knew the letter only in its present form). Furthermore, none of the early Greek manuscripts breaks up the book.

Outline
Apologetic: Paul?s Explanation of His Conduct and Apostolic Ministry (chs. 1-7)

Greetings (1:1-2)

Thanksgiving for Divine Comfort in Affliction (1:3-11)

The Integrity of Paul?s Motives and Conduct (1:12-2:4)

Forgiving the Offending Party at Corinth (2:5-11)

God?s Direction in Ministry (2:12-17)

The Corinthian Believers-a Letter from Christ (3:1-11)

Seeing the Glory of God with Unveiled Faces (3:12-4:6)

Treasure in Clay Jars (4:7-16a)

The Prospect of Death and What It Means for the Christian (4:16b-5:10)

The Ministry of Reconciliation (5:11-6:10)

A Spiritual Father?s Appeal to His Children (6:11-7:4)

The Meeting with Titus (7:5-16)

Hortatory: The Collection for the Christians at Jerusalem (chs. 8-9)

Generosity Encouraged (8:1-15)

Titus and His Companions Sent to Corinth (8:16-9:5)

Results of Generous Giving (9:6-15)

Polemical: Paul?s Vindication of His Apostolic Authority (chs. 10-13)

Paul?s Defense of His Apostolic Authority and the Area of His Mission (ch. 10)

Paul Forced into Foolish Boasting (chs. 11-12)

Final Warnings (13:1-10)

Conclusion, Final Greetings and Benediction (13:11-14)

Introduction to the Books of the Bible

The Book of 1 Corinthians

Corinth in the Time of Paul
The city of Corinth, perched like a one-eyed Titan astride the narrow isthmus connecting the Greek mainland with the Peloponnese, was one of the dominant commercial centers of the Mediterranean world as early as the eighth century b.c.

No city in Greece was more favorably situated for land and sea trade. With a high, strong citadel at its back, it lay between the Saronic Gulf and the Ionian Sea, with ports at Lechaion and Cenchrea. A diolkos, or stone road for the overland transport of ships, linked the two seas. Crowning the Acrocorinth was the temple of Aphrodite, served, according to Strabo, by more than 1,000 pagan priestess-prostitutes.

By the time the gospel reached Corinth in the spring of a.d. 52, the city had a proud history of leadership in the Achaian League, and a spirit of revived Hellenism under Roman domination after 44 b.c. following the destruction of the city by Mummius in 146 b.c.

Paul’s lengthy stay in Corinth brought him directly in contact with the major monuments of the agora, many of which still survive. The fountain-house of the spring Peirene, the temple of Apollo, the macellum or meat market (1Co 10:25) and the theater, the bema (Ac 18:12), and the unimpressive synagogue all played a part in the experience of the apostle. An inscription from the theater names the city official Erastus, probably the friend of Paul mentioned in Ro 16:23 (see note there).

Author and Date
Paul is acknowledged as the author both by the letter itself (1:1-2; 16:21) and by the early church fathers. His authorship was attested by Clement of Rome as early as a.d. 96, and today practically all NT interpreters concur. The letter was written c. 55 (see chart, p. 2261) toward the close of Paul’s three-year residency in Ephesus (see 16:5-9; Ac 20:31). It is clear from his reference to staying at Ephesus until Pentecost (16:8) that he intended to remain there somewhat less than a year when he wrote 1 Corinthians.

The City of Corinth
Corinth was a thriving city; it was at the time the chief city of Greece both commercially and politically. See map and diagram, p. 2355.

Its commerce. Located just off the Corinthian isthmus (see map, p. 2288), it was a crossroads for travelers and traders. It had two harbors: (1) Cenchrea, six miles to the east on the Saronic Gulf, and (2) Lechaion, a mile and a half to the north on the Corinthian Gulf. Goods were transported across the isthmus on the Diolkos, a stone road by which smaller ships could be hauled fully loaded across the isthmus, and by which cargoes of larger ships could be transported by wagons from one side to the other. Trade flowed through the city from Italy and Spain to the west and from Asia Minor, Phoenicia and Egypt to the east.

Its culture. Although Corinth was not a university town like Athens, it was characterized nevertheless by typical Greek culture. Its people were interested in Greek philosophy and placed a high premium on wisdom.
Its religion. Corinth contained at least 12 temples. Whether they were all in use during Paul’s time is not known for certain. One of the most infamous was the temple dedicated to Aphrodite, the goddess of love, whose worshipers practiced religious prostitution. About a fourth of a mile north of the theater stood the temple of Asclepius, the god of healing, and in the middle of the city the sixth-century b.c. temple of Apollo was located. In addition, the Jews had established a synagogue; the inscribed lintel of it has been found and placed in the museum at old Corinth.
Its immorality. Like any large commercial city, Corinth was a center for open and unbridled immorality. The worship of Aphrodite fostered prostitution in the name of religion. At one time 1,000 sacred (priestess) prostitutes served her temple. So widely known did the immorality of Corinth become that the Greek verb “to Corinthianize” came to mean “to practice sexual immorality.” In a setting like this it is no wonder that the Corinthian church was plagued with numerous problems.

Occasion and Purpose
Paul had received information from several sources concerning the conditions existing in the church at Corinth. Some members of the household of Chloe had informed him of the factions that had developed in the church (1:11). There were three individuals- Stephanas, Fortunatus and Achaicus- who had come to Paul in Ephesus to make some contribution to his ministry (16:17), but whether these were the ones from Chloe’s household we do not know.

Some of those who had come had brought disturbing information concerning moral irregularities in the church (chs. 5-6). Immorality had plagued the Corinthian assembly almost from the beginning. From 5:9-10 it is apparent that Paul had written previously concerning moral laxness. He had urged believers “not to associate with sexually immoral people” (5:9). Because of misunderstanding he now finds it necessary to clarify his instruction (5:10-11) and to urge immediate and drastic action (5:3-5,13).

Other Corinthian visitors had brought a letter from the church that requested counsel on several subjects (see 7:1 and note; cf. 8:1; 12:1; 16:1).

It is clear that, although the church was gifted (see 1:4-7), it was immature and unspiritual (3:1-4). Paul’s purposes for writing were: (1) to instruct and restore the church in its areas of weakness, correcting erroneous practices such as divisions (1:10- 4:21), immorality (ch. 5; 6:12-20), litigation in pagan courts (6:1-8) and abuse of the Lord’s Supper (11:17-34); (2) to correct false teaching concerning the resurrection (ch. 15); and (3) to answer questions addressed to Paul in the letter that had been brought to him (see previous paragraph).

Theme
The letter revolves around the theme of problems in Christian conduct in the church. It thus has to do with progressive sanctification, the continuing development of a holy character. Obviously Paul was personally concerned with the Corinthians’ problems, revealing a true pastor’s (shepherd’s) heart.

Relevance
This letter continues to be timely for the church today, both to instruct and to inspire. Christians are still powerfully influenced by their cultural environment, and most of the questions and problems that confronted the church at Corinth are still very much with us- problems like immaturity, instability, divisions, jealousy and envy, lawsuits, marital difficulties, sexual immorality and misuse of spiritual gifts. Yet in spite of this concentration on problems, Paul’s letter contains some of the most familiar and beloved chapters in the entire Bible- e.g., ch. 13 (on love) and ch. 15 (on resurrection).

Outline

Introduction (1:1-9)

Divisions in the Church (1:10- 4:21)

The Fact of the Divisions (1:10-17)

The Causes of the Divisions (1:18- 4:13)

A wrong conception of the Christian message (1:18- 3:4)

A wrong conception of Christian ministry and ministers (3:5- 4:5)

A wrong conception of the Christian (4:6-13)

The Exhortation to End the Divisions (4:14-21)

Moral and Ethical Disorders in the Life of the Church (chs. 5-6)

Laxity in Church Discipline (ch. 5)

Lawsuits before Non-Christian Judges (6:1-11)

Sexual Immorality (6:12-20)

Instruction on Marriage (ch. 7)

General Principles (7:1-7)

The Problems of the Married (7:8-24)

The Problems of the Unmarried (7:25-40)

Instruction on Questionable Practices (8:1- 11:1)

The Principles Involved (ch. 8)

The Principles Illustrated (ch. 9)

A Warning from the History of Israel (10:1-22)

The Principles Applied (10:23- 11:1)

Instruction on Public Worship (11:2- 14:40)

Propriety in Worship (11:2-16)

The Lord’s Supper (11:17-34)

Spiritual Gifts (chs. 12-14)

The test of the gifts (12:1-3)

The unity of the gifts (12:4-11)

The diversity of the gifts (12:12-31a)

The necessity of exercising the gifts in love (12:31b- 13:13)

The superiority of prophecy over tongues (14:1-25)

Rules governing public worship (14:26-40)

Instruction on the Resurrection (ch. 15)

The Certainty of the Resurrection (15:1-34)

The Consideration of Certain Objections (15:35-57)

The Concluding Appeal (15:58)

Conclusion: Practical and Personal Matters (ch. 16)

Introduction to the Books of the Bible

The Book of Romans

The writer of this letter was the apostle Paul (see 1:1 and note). No voice from the early church was ever raised against his authorship. The letter contains a number of historical references that agree with known facts of Paul’s life. The doctrinal content of the book is typical of Paul, which is evident from a comparison with other letters he wrote.

Date and Place of Writing
The book was probably written in the early spring of a.d. 57 (see chart, p. 2261). Very likely Paul was on his third missionary journey, ready to return to Jerusalem with the offering from the mission churches for poverty-stricken believers in Jerusalem (see 15:25-27 and notes). In 15:26 it is suggested that Paul had already received contributions from the churches of Macedonia and Achaia, so he either was at Corinth or had already been there. Since he had not yet been at Corinth (on his third missionary journey) when he wrote 1 Corinthians (cf. 1Co 16:1-4) and the collection issue had still not been resolved when he wrote 2 Corinthians (2Co 8-9), the writing of Romans must follow that of 1,2 Corinthians (dated c. 55).

The most likely place of writing is either Corinth or Cenchrea (about six miles away) because of references to Phoebe of Cenchrea (see 16:1 and note) and to Gaius, Paul’s host (see 16:23 and note), who was probably a Corinthian (see 1Co 1:14). Erastus (see 16:23 and note) may also have been a Corinthian (see 2Ti 4:20).

Recipients
The original recipients of the letter were the people of the church at Rome (1:7), who were predominantly Gentile. Jews, however, must have constituted a substantial minority of the congregation (see 4:1; chs. 9-11; see also note on 1:13). Perhaps Paul originally sent the entire letter to the Roman church, after which he or someone else used a shorter form (chs. 1-14 or 1-15) for more general distribution. See note on 2Pe 3:15; see also map, p. 2314.

Major Theme
Paul’s primary theme in Romans is the basic gospel, God’s plan of salvation and righteousness for all humankind, Jew and Gentile alike (see 1:16-17 and notes). Although justification by faith has been suggested by some as the theme, it would seem that a broader theme states the message of the book more adequately. “Righteousness from God” (1:17) includes justification by faith, but it also embraces such related ideas as guilt, sanctification and security.

Purpose
Paul’s purposes for writing this letter were varied:

He wrote to prepare the way for his coming visit to Rome and his proposed mission to Spain (1:10-15; 15:22-29).
He wrote to present the basic system of salvation to a church that had not received the teaching of an apostle before.
He sought to explain the relationship between Jew and Gentile in God’s overall plan of redemption. The Jewish Christians were being rejected by the larger Gentile group in the church (see 14:1 and note) because the Jewish believers still felt constrained to observe dietary laws and sacred days (14:2-6).
Occasion

When Paul wrote this letter, he was probably at Corinth (see Ac 20:2-3 and notes) on his third missionary journey. His work in the eastern Mediterranean was almost finished (see 15:18-23), and he greatly desired to visit the Roman church (see 1:11-12; 15:23-24). At this time, however, he could not go to Rome because he felt he must personally deliver the collection taken among the Gentile churches for the poverty-stricken Christians of Jerusalem (see 15:25-28 and notes). So instead of going to Rome, he sent a letter to prepare the Christians there for his intended visit in connection with a mission to Spain (see 15:23-24 and note on 15:24). For many years Paul had wanted to visit Rome to minister there (see 1:13-15), and this letter served as a careful and systematic theological introduction to that hoped-for personal ministry. Since he was not acquainted directly with the Roman church, he says little about its problems (but see 14:1- 15:13; cf. also 13:1-7; 16:17-18).

Content
Paul begins by surveying the spiritual condition of all people. He finds Jews and Gentiles alike to be sinners and in need of salvation. That salvation has been provided by God through Jesus Christ and his redemptive work on the cross. It is a provision, however, that must be received by faith- a principle by which God has always dealt with humankind, as the example of Abraham shows. Since salvation is only the beginning of Christian experience, Paul moves on to show how believers are freed from sin, law and death- a provision made possible by their union with Christ in both death and resurrection and by the indwelling presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Paul then shows that Israel too, though presently in a state of unbelief, has a place in God’s sovereign redemptive plan. Now she consists of only a remnant, allowing for the conversion of the Gentiles, but the time will come when “all Israel will be saved” (11:26; see note there). The letter concludes with an appeal to the readers to work out their Christian faith in practical ways, both in the church and in the world. None of Paul’s other letters states so profoundly the content of the gospel and its implications for both the present and the future.

Special Characteristics
The most systematic of Paul’s letters. It reads more like an elaborate theological essay than a letter.
Emphasis on Christian doctrine. The number and importance of the theological themes touched upon are impressive: sin and death, salvation, grace, faith, righteousness, justification, sanctification, redemption, resurrection and glorification.
Widespread use of OT quotations. Although Paul regularly quotes from the OT in his letters, in Romans the argument is sometimes carried along by such quotations (see especially chs. 9-11).
Deep concern for Israel. Paul writes about her present status, her relationship to the Gentiles and her final salvation.

Outline

Introduction (1:1-15)

Theme: Righteousness from God (1:16-17)

The Unrighteousness of All People (1:18- 3:20)

Gentiles (1:18-32)

Jews (2:1- 3:8)

Summary: All People (3:9-20)

Righteousness Imputed: Justification (3:21- 5:21)

Through Christ (3:21-26)

Received by Faith (3:27- 4:25)

The principle established (3:27-31)

The principle illustrated (ch. 4)

The Fruits of Righteousness (5:1-11)

Summary: Humanity’s Unrighteousness Contrasted with God’s Gift of Righteousness (5:12-21)

Righteousness Imparted: Sanctification (chs. 6-8)

Freedom from Sin’s Tyranny (ch. 6)

Freedom from the Law’s Condemnation (ch. 7)

Life in the Power of the Holy Spirit (ch. 8)

God’s Righteousness Vindicated: The Justice of His Way with Israel (chs. 9-11)

The Justice of God’s Rejection of Israel (9:1-29)

The Cause of That Rejection (9:30- 10:21)

The Rejection Is Neither Complete nor Final (ch. 11)

There is even now a remnant (11:1-10)

The rejection is only temporary (11:11-24)

God’s ultimate purpose is mercy (11:25-36)

Righteousness Practiced (12:1- 15:13)

In the Body- the Church (ch. 12)

In the World (ch. 13)

Among Weak and Strong Christians (14:1- 15:13)

Conclusion (15:14-33)

Commendation, Greetings and Doxology (ch. 16)

Introduction to the Books of the Bible

The Book of Acts

Although the author does not name himself, evidence outside the Scriptures and inferences from the book itself lead to the conclusion that the author was Luke.

The earliest of the external testimonies appears in the Muratorian Canon (c. a.d. 170), where the explicit statement is made that Luke was the author of both the third Gospel and the “Acts of All the Apostles.” Eusebius (c. 325) lists information from numerous sources to identify the author of these books as Luke (Ecclesiastical History, 3.4).

Within the writing itself are some clues as to who the author was:

Luke, the companion of Paul. In the description of the happenings in Acts, certain passages make use of the pronoun “we.” At these points the author includes himself as a companion of Paul in his travels (16:10-17; 20:5- 21:18; 27:1- 28:16; see notes on 16:10,17; 27:1). A historian as careful with details as this author proves to be would have good reason for choosing to use “we” in some places and “they” elsewhere. The author was therefore probably present with Paul at the particular events described in the “we” sections.

These “we” passages include the period of Paul’s two-year imprisonment at Rome (ch. 28). During this time Paul wrote, among other letters, Philemon and Colossians. In them he sends greetings from his companions, and Luke is included among them (see Col 4:9-17 and notes; Phm 23-24). In fact, after eliminating those who, for one reason or another, would not fit the requirements for the author of Acts, Luke is left as the most likely candidate.

Luke, the physician. Although it cannot be proved that the author of Acts was a physician simply from his vocabulary, the words he uses and the traits and education reflected in his writings fit well his role as a physician (see, e.g., note on 28:6). It is true that the doctor of the first century did not have as specialized a vocabulary as that of doctors today, but there are some usages in Luke-Acts that seem to suggest that a medical man was the author of these books. And it should be remembered that Paul uses the term “doctor” in describing Luke (see Col 4:14 and note). Date Two dates are possible for the writing of this book: (1) c. a.d. 63, soon after the last event recorded in the book, and (2) c. 70 or even later.

The earlier date is supported by:

Silence about later events. While arguments from silence are not conclusive, it is perhaps significant that the book contains no allusion to events that happened after the close of Paul’s two-year imprisonment in Rome: e.g., the burning of Rome and the persecution of the Christians there (a.d. 64), the martyrdom of Peter and Paul (possibly 67) and the destruction of Jerusalem (70). No outcome of Paul’s trial. If Luke knew the outcome of the trial Paul was waiting for (see 28:30 and note), why did he not record it at the close of Acts? Perhaps it was because he had brought the history up to date. Those who prefer the later date hold that 1:8 (see note there) reveals one of the purposes Luke had in writing his history, and that this purpose influenced the way the book ended. Luke wanted to show how the church penetrated the world of his day in ever-widening circles (Jerusalem, Judea, Samaria, the ends of the earth) until it reached Rome, the world’s political and cultural center. On this understanding, mention of the martyrdom of Paul (c. a.d. 67) and of the destruction of Jerusalem (70) was not pertinent. This would allow for the writing of Acts c. 70 or even later.

Recipient The recipient of the book, Theophilus, is the same person addressed in the first volume, the Gospel of Luke (see Introduction to Luke: Recipient and Purpose).

Importance The book of Acts provides a bridge for the writings of the NT. As a second volume to Luke’s Gospel, it joins what Jesus “began to do and to teach” (1:1; see note there) as told in the Gospels with what he continued to do and teach through the apostles’ preaching and the establishment of the church. Besides linking the Gospel narratives on the one hand and the apostolic letters on the other, it supplies an account of the life of Paul from which we can learn the setting for his letters. Geographically its story spans the lands between Jerusalem, where the church began, and Rome, the political center of the empire. Historically it recounts the first 30 years of the church. It is also a bridge that ties the church in its beginning with each succeeding age. This book may be studied to gain an understanding of the principles that ought to govern the church of any age.

Theme and Purpose The theme of the work is best summarized in 1:8 (see note there). It was ordinary procedure for a historian at this time to begin a second volume by summarizing the first volume and indicating the contents anticipated in his second volume. Luke summarized his first volume in 1:1-3; the theme of his second volume is presented in the words of Jesus: “You will be my witnesses in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the ends of the earth” (1:8). This is, in effect, an outline of the book of Acts (see Plan and Outline below).

The main purposes of the book appear to be:

To present a history. The significance of Acts as a historical account of Christian origins cannot be overestimated. It tells of the founding of the church, the spread of the gospel, the beginnings of congregations, and evangelistic efforts in the apostolic pattern. One of the unique aspects of Christianity is its firm historical foundation. The life and teachings of Jesus Christ are established in the four Gospel narratives, and the book of Acts provides a coordinated account of the beginning and spread of the church as the result of the work of the risen Lord and the Holy Spirit through the apostles. To give a defense. One finds embedded in Acts a record of Christian defenses made to both Jews (e.g., 4:8-12) and Gentiles (e.g., 25:8-11), with the underlying purpose of conversion. It shows how the early church coped with pagan and Jewish thought, the Roman government and Hellenistic society. Luke may have written this work as Paul awaited trial in Rome. If his case came to court, what better court brief could Paul have had than a life of Jesus, a history of the beginnings of the church (including the activity of Paul) and an early collection of Paul’s letters?

To provide a guide. Luke had no way of knowing how long the church would continue on this earth, but as long as it pursues its course, the book of Acts will be one of its major guides. In Acts we see basic principles being applied to specific situations in the context of problems and persecutions. These same principles continue to be applicable until Christ returns. To depict the triumph of Christianity in the face of bitter persecution. The success of the church in carrying the gospel from Jerusalem to Rome and in planting local churches across the Roman empire demonstrated that Christianity was not a merely human work. It triumphed under the rule of the exalted Christ and through the power of the Holy Spirit.

Characteristics Accurate historical detail. Every page of Acts abounds with sharp, precise details, to the delight of the historian. The account covers a period of about 30 years and reaches across the lands from Jerusalem to Rome. Luke’s description of these times and places is filled with all kinds of people and cultures, a variety of governmental administrations, court scenes in Caesarea, and dramatic events involving such centers as Antioch, Ephesus, Athens, Corinth and Rome. Barbarian country districts and Jewish centers are included as well. Yet in each instance archaeological findings reveal that Luke uses the proper terms for the time and place being described. Hostile criticism has not succeeded in disproving the detailed accuracy of Luke’s political and geographical designations (see chart, p. 2230, and maps and archaeological notes scattered throughout the book).

Literary excellence. Not only does Luke have a large vocabulary compared with other NT writers, but he also uses these words in literary styles that fit the cultural settings of the events he is recording. At times he employs good, classical Greek; at other times the Palestinian Aramaic of the first century shows through his expressions. This is an indication of Luke’s careful practice of using language appropriate to the time and place being described. Aramaisms are used when Luke is describing happenings that took place in the Holy Land (chs. 1-12). When, however, Paul departs for Hellenistic lands beyond the territories where Aramaic-speaking people live, Aramaisms cease. Dramatic description. Luke’s skillful use of speeches contributes to the drama of his narrative. Not only are they carefully spaced and well balanced between Peter and Paul, but the speeches of a number of other individuals add variety and vividness to the account (see 5 below). Luke’s use of details brings the action to life. Nowhere in ancient literature is there an account of a shipwreck superior to Luke’s with its nautical details (ch. 27). The book is vivid and fast-moving throughout.

Objective account. Luke’s careful arrangement of material need not detract from the accuracy of his record. He demonstrates the objectivity of his account by recording the failures as well as the successes, the bad as well as the good, in the early church. Not only is the discontent between the Grecian Jews and the Hebraic Jews recorded (see 6:1 and note) but also the discord between Paul and Barnabas (see 15:39 and note). Divisions and differences are recognized (15:2; 21:20-21). Effective use of speeches. One of the distinguishing features of the book of Acts is its speeches. They may be classified as follows: (1) evangelistic- two types: to Jews and God-fearers (2:14-40; 3:12-26; 4:8-12; 5:29-32; 10:34-43; 13:16-41), to pagans (17:22-31); (2) deliberative (1:16-17,20-22; 15:7-11,13-21); (3) apologetic (7:2-52; 22:1-21; 23:1-6; 24:10-21; 25:8,10; 26:2-23; 28:17-20,21-22,25-28); (4) hortatory (20:18-35).

The speeches are obvioiusly not verbatim reports; any of them can be read in a few minutes. We know, e.g., that Paul at times could be a long-winded preacher (see 20:7,9; 28:23). However, studies of these speeches (speakers, audiences, circumstances, language and style of writing) give us reason to belive that they are accurate summaries of what was actually said.

Plan and Outline Luke weaves together different interests and emphases as he relates the beginnings and expansion of the church. The design of his book revolves around (1) key persons: Peter and Paul; (2) important topics and events: the role of the Holy Spirit, pioneer missionary outreach to new fields, conversions, the growth of the church, and life in the Christian community; (3) significant problems: conflict between Jews and Gentiles, persecution of the church by some Jewish elements, trials before Jews and Romans, confrontations with Gentiles, and other hardships in the ministry; (4) geographical advances: five significant stages (see the quotations in the outline; see also map, p. 2268; cf. note on 1:8).

Peter and the Beginnings of the Church in the Holy Land (chs. 1-12)

“Throughout Judea, Galilee and Samaria” (1:1- 9:31; see 9:31 and note)

Introduction (1:1-2)

Christ’s resurrection ministry (1:3-11)

The period of waiting for the Holy Spirit (1:12-26)

The filling with the Spirit (ch. 2)

The healing of the lame man and the resultant arrest of Peter and John (3:1- 4:31)

The community of goods (4:32- 5:11)

The arrest of the 12 apostles (5:12-42)

The choice of the Seven (6:1-7)

Stephen’s arrest and martyrdom (6:8- 7:60)

The scattering of the Jerusalem believers (8:1-4)

Philip’s ministry (8:5-40)

In Samaria (8:5-25)

To the Ethiopian eunuch (8:26-40)

Saul’s conversion (9:1-31)

“As far as Phoenicia, Cyprus and Antioch” (9:32- 12:25; see 11:19 and note)

Peter’s ministry on the Mediterranean coast (9:32- 11:18)

To Aeneas and Dorcas (9:32-43)

To Cornelius (10:1- 11:18)

The new Gentile church in Antioch (11:19-30)

Herod’s persecution of the church and his subsequent death (ch. 12)

Paul and the Expansion of the Church from Antioch to Rome (chs. 13-28)

“Throughout the region of Phrygia and Galatia” (13:1- 15:35; see 16:6 and note)

Paul’s first missionary journey (chs. 13-14)

The Jerusalem conference (15:1-35)

“Over to Macedonia” (15:36- 21:16; see 16:9 and note)

Paul’s second missionary journey (15:36- 18:22)

Paul’s third missionary journey (18:23- 21:16)

“To Rome” (21:17- 28:31; see 28:14 and note)

Paul’s imprisonment in Jerusalem (21:17- 23:35)

Arrest (21:17- 22:29)

Trial before the Sanhedrin (22:30- 23:11)

Transfer to Caesarea (23:12-35)

Paul’s imprisonment in Caesarea (chs. 24-26)

Trial before Felix (ch. 24)

Trial before Festus (25:1-12)

Hearing before Festus and Agrippa (25:13- 26:32)

Voyage to Rome (27:1- 28:15)

Two years under house arrest in Rome (28:16-31)

Introduction to the Books of the Bible

The Book of John

The author is the apostle John, “the disciple whom Jesus loved” (13:23 [see note there]; 19:26; 20:2; 21:7,20,24). He was prominent in the early church but is not mentioned by name in this Gospel- which would be natural if he wrote it, but hard to explain otherwise. The author knew Jewish life well, as seen from references to popular Messianic speculations (see, e.g., 1:21 and note; 7:40-42), to the hostility between Jews and Samaritans (see 4:9 and note), and to Jewish customs, such as the duty of circumcision on the eighth day taking precedence over the prohibition of working on the Sabbath (see note on 7:22). He knew the geography of the Holy Land, locating Bethany about 15 stadia (about two miles) from Jerusalem (11:18) and mentioning Cana, a village not referred to in any earlier writing known to us (2:1 [see note there]; 21:2). The Gospel of John has many touches that appear to reflect the recollections of an eyewitness- such as the house at Bethany being filled with the fragrance of the broken perfume jar (see 12:3 and note). Early writers such as Irenaeus and Tertullian say that John wrote this Gospel, and all other evidence agrees (see Introduction to 1 John: Author).

Date In general, two views of the dating of this Gospel have been advocated:

The traditional view places it toward the end of the first century, c. a.d. 85 or later (see Introduction to 1 John: Date). More recently, some interpreters have suggested an earlier date, perhaps as early as the 50s and no later than 70. The first view may be supported by reference to the statement of Clement of Alexandria (died between 211 and 216) that John wrote to supplement the accounts found in the other Gospels (Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, 6.14.7), and thus his Gospel is later than the first three. It has also been argued that the seemingly more developed theology of the fourth Gospel indicates that it originated later. The second view has found favor because it has been felt more recently that John wrote independently of the other Gospels (see essay and chart, p. 1943). This does not contradict the statement of Clement referred to above. Also, those who hold this view point out that developed theology does not necessarily argue for a late origin. The theology of Romans (written c. 57) is every bit as developed as that in John. Further, the statement in 5:2 that there “is” (rather than “was” ) a pool “near the Sheep Gate” may suggest a time before 70, when Jerusalem was destroyed. Others, however, observe that John elsewhere sometimes used the present tense when speaking of the past.

Purpose and Emphases John’s Gospel is rather different from the other three. Whether or not he knew them (or any one of them) continues to be debated. In any event, his witness to Jesus goes its own way, highlighting matters that in the other Gospels remain implicit and underdeveloped. The literary style of this witness of Jesus is also unique among the Gospels; here focus is on the “signs” of Jesus’ identity and mission and on lengthy, theologically rich discourses.

John begins with the profound announcement that Jesus is the “in the beginning” creative Word of God who had become embodied (incarnated) as a human being to be the light of life for the world. After this comes the proclamation that this Jesus is the Son of God sent from the Father to finish the Father’s work in the world (see 4:34 and note). God’s own glory is made visible in him (“Anyone who has seen me has seen the Father,” 14:9), and what he does glorifies the Father. In him the full grace and truth of God has shown itself. Strikingly, a series of “I am” claims on Jesus’ lips echoes God’s naming of himself in Ex 3:14, further strengthening the link between the Father and the Son (see 6:35; 8:12; 9:5; 10:7,9,14; 11:25; 14:6; 15:1,5).

Jesus’ words to Nicodemus nicely summarize this Gospel’s central theme: “For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life” (3:16). Although a variety of motivations for the composition of John’s Gospel have been posited by interpreters (such as to supplement the other Gospels, to combat some form of heresy, to oppose the continuing followers of John the Baptist), the author himself states his main purpose clearly in 20:31: “that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that by believing you may have life in his name.”

For the main emphases of the book see notes on 1:4,7,9,14,19,49; 2:4,11; 3:27; 4:34; 6:35; 13:1- 17:26; 13:31; 17:1-2,5; 20:31.

Outline

Prologue: The Word Became Flesh (1:1-18)

The Beginning of Jesus’ Ministry (1:19-51)

John the Baptist’s Testimony about Jesus (1:19-34)

John’s Disciples Follow Jesus (1:35-42)

Jesus Calls Philip and Nathanael (1:43-51)

Jesus’ Public Ministry: Signs and Discourses (chs. 2-11)

Changing Water into Wine (2:1-11)

Cleansing the Temple (2:12-25)

Jesus Teaches Nicodemus (3:1-21)

John the Baptist’s Final Testimony about Jesus (3:22-36)

Jesus and the Samaritans (4:1-42)

Healing of the Official’s Son (4:43-54)

Jesus’ Visit to Jerusalem at an Annual Feast (ch. 5)

Feeding the 5,000 and Jesus’ Claim to Be the Bread of Life (ch. 6)

Jesus at the Feast of Tabernacles and Disputes over Who He Is (chs. 7-8)

Healing of the Man Born Blind (ch. 9)

Jesus is the Good Shepherd (10:1-21)

Conflict at the Feast of Dedication over Jesus’ Identity (10:22-42)

The Raising of Lazarus (ch. 11)

The Passion Week (chs. 12-19)

The Anointing of Jesus’ Feet (12:1-11)

Jesus’ Entry into Jerusalem as King (12:12-19)

Jesus Predicts His Death (12:20-36)

Belief and Unbelief among the Jews (12:37-50)

Jesus’ Farewell Discourses and Prayer (chs. 13-17)

At the Last Supper (chs. 13-14)

Jesus washes the disciples’ feet (13:1-17)

Jesus predicts his betrayal (13:18-30)

Jesus predicts Peter’s denial (13:31-38)

Jesus comforts his disciples (14:1-4)

Jesus is the way to the Father (14:5-14)

Jesus promises the Holy Spirit (14:15-30)

On the way to Gethsemane (chs. 15-16)

The vine and the branches (15:1-17)

The world hates the disciples (15:18-25)

The work of the Holy Spirit (15:26- 16:15)

The disciples’ grief will turn to joy (16:16-33)

Jesus’ prayer (ch. 17)

For himself- that he be glorified (17:1-5)

For his disciples (17:6-19)

For all believers (17:20-26)

Jesus’ Betrayal and Arrest (18:1-11)

Jesus’ Trials before Jewish and Roman Officials (18:12-40)

Jesus’ Crucifixion (19:1-27)

Jesus’ Death and Burial (19:28-42)

Jesus’ Resurrection (20:1-29)

Statement of the Gospel’s Purpose (20:30-31)

Epilogue: Jesus’ Recommissioning of the Disciples (ch. 21)

Introduction to the Books of the Bible

The Book of Luke

The author’s name does not appear in the book, but much unmistakable evidence points to Luke. This Gospel is a companion volume to the book of Acts, and the language and structure of these two books indicate that both were written by the same person. They are addressed to the same individual, Theophilus, and the second volume refers to the first (Ac 1:1). Certain sections in Acts use the pronoun “we” (Ac 16:10-17; 20:5-15; 21:1-18; 27:1- 28:16), indicating that the author was with Paul when the events described in these passages took place. By process of elimination, Paul’s “dear friend Luke, the doctor” (Col 4:14) and “fellow worker” (Phm 24), becomes the most likely candidate. His authorship is supported by the uniform testimony of early Christian writings (e.g., the Muratorian Canon, a.d. 170, and the works of Irenaeus, c. 180).

Luke was probably a Gentile by birth, well educated in Greek culture, a physician by profession, a companion of Paul at various times from his second missionary journey to his final imprisonment in Rome, and a loyal friend who remained with the apostle after others had deserted him (2Ti 4:11).

Antioch (of Syria) and Philippi are among the places suggested as his hometown.

Recipient and Purpose The Gospel is specifically directed to Theophilus (1:3), whose name means “one who loves God” and almost certainly refers to a particular person rather than to lovers of God in general. The use of “most excellent” with the name further indicates an individual, and supports the idea that he was a Roman official or at least of high position and wealth. He was possibly Luke’s patron, responsible for seeing that the writings were copied and distributed. Such a dedication to the publisher was common at that time.

Theophilus, however, was more than a publisher. The message of this Gospel was intended for his own instruction (1:4) as well as the instruction of those among whom the book would be circulated. The fact that the Gospel was initially directed to Theophilus does not narrow or limit its purpose. It was written to strengthen the faith of all believers and to answer the attacks of unbelievers. It was presented to displace some disconnected and ill-founded reports about Jesus (see 1:1-4 and note). Luke wanted to show that the place of the Gentile Christian in God’s kingdom is based on the teaching of Jesus. He wanted to commend the preaching of the gospel to the whole world.

Date and Place of Writing The two most commonly suggested periods for dating the Gospel of Luke are: (1) a.d. 59-63, and (2) the 70s or the 80s (see essay and chart, p. 1943).

The place of writing was probably Rome, though Achaia, Ephesus and Caesarea have also been suggested. The place to which it was sent would, of course, depend on the residence of Theophilus. By its detailed designations of places in the Holy Land, the Gospel seems to be intended for readers who were unfamiliar with that land. Antioch, Achaia and Ephesus are possible destinations.

Style Luke had outstanding command of the Greek language. His vocabulary is extensive and rich, and his style at times approaches that of classical Greek (as in the preface, 1:1-4), while at other times it is quite Semitic (1:5- 2:52)- often like the Septuagint (the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT).

Characteristics The third Gospel presents the works and teachings of Jesus that are especially important for understanding the way of salvation. Its scope is complete from the birth of Christ to his ascension, its arrangement is orderly, and it appeals to both Jews and Gentiles. The writing is characterized by literary excellence, historical detail and warm, sensitive understanding of Jesus and those around him.

Since the Synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark and Luke) report many of the same episodes in Jesus’ life, one would expect much similarity in their accounts. The dissimilarities reveal the distinctive emphases of the separate writers. Luke’s characteristic themes include: (1) universality, recognition of Gentiles as well as Jews in God’s plan (see, e.g., 2:30-32 and notes on 2:31; 3:6); (2) emphasis on prayer, especially Jesus’ praying before important occasions (see note on 3:21); (3) joy at the announcement of the gospel or “good news” (see note on 1:14); (4) special concern for the role of women (see, e.g., 8:1-3 and notes); (5) special interest in the poor (some of the rich were included among Jesus’ followers, but he seemed closest to the poor; see note on 12:33); (6) concern for sinners (Jesus was a friend to those deep in sin); (7) stress on the family circle (Jesus’ activity included men, women and children, with the setting frequently in the home); (8) repeated use of the Messianic title “Son of Man” (used 25 times; see 19:10; Da 7:13 and notes); (9) emphasis on the Holy Spirit (see note on 4:1); (10) inclusion of more parables than any other Gospel (see chart, p. 2130); (11) emphasis on praising God (see 1:64; 24:53 and notes).

Sources Although Luke acknowledges that many others had written of Jesus’ life (1:1), he does not indicate that he relied solely on these reports for his own writing. He used personal investigation and arrangement, based on testimony from “eyewitnesses and servants of the word” (1:2)- including the preaching and oral accounts of the apostles. His language differences from the other Synoptics and his blocks of distinctive material (e.g., 10:1- 18:14; 19:1-28) indicate independent work, though he obviously used some of the same sources (see essay, p. 1943).

Plan Luke’s account of Jesus’ ministry can be divided into three major parts: (1) the events that occurred in and around Galilee (4:14- 9:50), (2) those that took place in Judea and Perea (9:51- 19:27), and (3) those of the final week in Jerusalem (19:28- 24:53). Luke’s uniqueness is especially seen in the amount of material devoted to Jesus’ closing ministry in Judea and Perea. This material is predominantly made up of accounts of Jesus’ discourses. Twenty-one of the 28 parables that occur in Luke are found in 10:30- 19:27. Of the 20 miracles recorded in Luke, only 5 appear in 9:51- 19:27. Already in the ninth chapter (see note on 9:51), Jesus is seen anticipating his final appearance in Jerusalem and his crucifixion (see note on 13:22).

The main theme of the Gospel is the nature of Jesus’ Messiahship and mission, and a key verse is 19:10.

Outline

The Preface (1:1-4)

The Births of John the Baptist and Jesus (1:5- 2:52)

The Annunciations (1:5-56)

The Birth of John the Baptist (1:57-80)

The Birth and Childhood of Jesus (ch. 2)

The Preparation of Jesus for His Public Ministry (3:1- 4:13)

His Forerunner (3:1-20)

His Baptism (3:21-22)

His Genealogy (3:23-38)

His Temptation (4:1-13)

His Ministry in Galilee (4:14- 9:9)

The Beginning of the Ministry in Galilee (4:14-41)

The First Tour of Galilee (4:42- 5:39)

A Sabbath Controversy (6:1-11)

The Choice of the 12 Apostles (6:12-16)

The Sermon on the Plain (6:17-49)

Miracles in Capernaum and Nain (7:1-18)

The Inquiry of John the Baptist (7:19-29)

Jesus and the Pharisees (7:30-50)

The Second Tour of Galilee (8:1-3)

The Parables of the Kingdom (8:4-21)

The Trip across the Sea of Galilee (8:22-39)

The Third Tour of Galilee (8:40- 9:9)

His Withdrawal to Regions around Galilee (9:10-50)

To the Eastern Shore of the Sea of Galilee (9:10-17)

To Caesarea Philippi (9:18-50)

His Ministry in Judea (9:51- 13:21)

Journey through Samaria to Judea (9:51-62)

The Mission of the 72 (10:1-24)

The Lawyer and the Parable of the Good Samaritan (10:25-37)

Jesus at Bethany with Mary and Martha (10:38-42)

Teachings in Judea (11:1- 13:21)

His Ministry in and around Perea (13:22- 19:27)

The Narrow Door (13:22-30)

Warning concerning Herod (13:31-35)

At a Pharisee’s House (14:1-23)

The Cost of Discipleship (14:24-35)

The Parables of the Lost Sheep, the Lost Coin and the Lost Son (ch. 15)

The Parable of the Shrewd Manager (16:1-18)

The Rich Man and Lazarus (16:19-31)

Miscellaneous Teachings (17:1-10)

Ten Healed of Leprosy (17:11-19)

The Coming of the Kingdom (17:20-37)

The Persistent Widow (18:1-8)

The Pharisee and the Tax Collector (18:9-14)

Jesus and the Children (18:15-17)

The Rich Young Ruler (18:18-30)

Christ Foretells His Death (18:31-34)

A Blind Beggar Given His Sight (18:35-43)

Jesus and Zacchaeus (19:1-10)

The Parable of the Ten Minas (19:11-27)

His Last Days: Sacrifice and Triumph (19:28- 24:53)

The Triumphal Entry (19:28-44)

The Cleansing of the Temple (19:45-48)

The Last Controversies with the Jewish Leaders (ch. 20)

The Olivet Discourse (ch. 21)

The Last Supper (22:1-38)

Jesus Praying in Gethsemane (22:39-46)

Jesus’ Arrest (22:47-65)

Jesus on Trial (22:66- 23:25)

The Crucifixion (23:26-56)

The Resurrection (24:1-12)

The Post-Resurrection Ministry (24:13-49)

The Ascension (24:50-53)